The influence of the North Indian Gupta style also made itself felt from the fifth century AD onwards. The center of this school was Saranath, near Varanasi (Banaras), where Buddha preached his first sermon. Saranath produced the classical Buddha image which influenced the art of Burma and Thailand, as well as that of Funan at the mouth of the Mekong. The art of the Shailendra dynasty of Java in the eighth and ninth centuries AD – of which the Borobudur is the most famous monument – was obviously influenced by what is termed the Late Gupta style of western central Java of about (c.800 AD) explicitly refers to the constant flow of the people from Gurjardesha (Gujarat and adjacent regions) due to which this temple had been built. Indeed, the temple’s sculptures show a striking similarity with those of the late Buddhist caves of Ajanta and Ellora. 

In later centuries Southeast Asia was more and more influenced by the scholars of the University of Nalanda and the style of the Pala dynasty, the last of the great Indian dynasties which bestowed royal patronage on Buddhism. The influence of Mahayana Buddhism prevailing in Bihar and Bengal under the Palas was so strong at the court of the Shailendras of Java that a Buddhist monk from ‘Gaudi’ (Bengal) with the typical Bengali name of Kumara Ghose, became Rajguru of the Shailendra king and in this capacity consecrated a statue of Manjushree in the royal temple of the Shailenras in 782 AD. Bengal eastern Bihar and Orissa were at that time centers of cultural influence. These regions were in constant contact with Southeast Asia, whose painters and sculptors reflected the style of Eastern Indian in their works. Typical of this aesthetic was the special arrangement of figures surrounding the central figure. These types of arrangement can be found both in Indonesia sculptures and in the temple paintings of Pagan (Burma) during this period. 

In the same era south Indian influence emerged once more under the Chola dynasty. Maritime trade was of major importance to the Choals, who thereby also increased their cultural influences. The occasional military interventions of the Cholas did not detract from the peaceful cultural intercourse. At the northern coast of Sumatra the old port of Dillii, near Medan, had great Buddha sculptures evincing a local variation of the Chola style, indeed a magnificent status of the Hindu God Ganesha, in the pure Chola style, have recently been found at the same place, Close to the famous temple of Padang Lawas, central Sumatra, small but very impressive Chola-style bronze sculptures of a four armed Lokanath and of Tara have been found. These sculptures are now in the museum of Jakarta. They are dated at 1039 AD, and a brief inscription containing Old Malay words in addition to Sanskrit words- but Tamil words-proves that the figures were not imported from India but were produced locally. 

Nevertheless, Chola relations with Southeast Asia were by no means a one-way street. It is presumed that the imperial cult of the Choals, centered on their enormous temples, was directly influenced by the grand style of Angkor. The great tank at Gangaikondacholapuram was perhaps conceived by the Chola ruler in the same spirit as that which moved the Cambodian rulers who ordered the construction of the famous Barays (tanks) of Angkor, which are considered to be a special Indication of royal merit.

In the late thirteenth century Ad Pagan (Burma) was once more exposed to a strong current of defect Indian influence emanating from Bengal at that time conquered by Islamic rulers Nalanda had been destroyed by the end of the twelth century and large groups of monks in search of a new home flocked to Pagan and also to the Buddhist centers of Tibet. The beautiful paintings in the temples of Minnanthu in the eastern part of the city of Pagan may have due to them. 

Islamic conquest cut off the holy places of Buddhism. A millennium of intensive contacts between India and Southeast Asia has come to an end. But there was another factor which must be mentioned in this contact. In 1190 AD Chapata, a Buddhist monk from Pagan, returned to that city after having spent ten years in Sri Lanka. In Burma he founded a branch of the Theravada school of Buddhism, established on the strict rules of the Mahavihara monastery of the Sri Lanka. This led to a schism in the Burmese Buddhist order which had been established at Pagan by Shin Arahan about 150 years earlier. Shin Arahan was a follower of the South Indian school of Buddhism, which had its center at Kanchipuram. Chapata’s reform prevailed and by the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries AD. Burma, Thailand and Cambodia had adopted Theravada Buddhism of the Sri Lanka school. In Cambodia this shift from Mahayana to Theravada Buddhism seems to have been part of a socio-cultural revolution. Under the last great King of Angkor, Jayavarman VII (1181-1218) Royan Mahayana Buddhism had become associated in the eyes of the people with the enormous burden which the king imposed upon them in order to build the enormous Buddhist temples of Angkor Thom (e.g. the gigantic Beyon). 

Even in Indonesia, however, where Tantric Buddhism with an ad-mixture of Shaivism prevailed at the courts of rulers all the way from Sumatra down to Bali, direct Indian influence rapidly receded in the thirteenth century. This was only partly due to the intervention of Islam in India, its other cause being an upsurge of Javanese art which confined the influence of Indian art to the statues of defied. Kings erected after the death of the ruler. The outer walls of the temples were covered with Javanese reliefs which evince a great similarity to the Javanese shadow play (Wayang kulit). The chandi Jago (thirteenth century AD) and the temples of Panantaran (fourthenth century AD) show this new Javanese style very well. It has remained the dominant style of Bali art up to the present time. A similar trend towards the assertion of indigenous styles can also be found in the Theravads Buddhist countries. The content of the scene depicted is still derived from Hindu mythology of Buddhist legends but the presentation clearly incorporates the respective national style.

By

Shabeer Mon, Asst.Professor, Kerala

The cultures of modern-East Asia all provide evidence of a long period of contact with India. 

- Many South-East Asian languages (Maley and Javanese are good examples) contain an important proportion of words of Sanskrit of Dravidian origin. Some of these languages, like Thai, are still written in scripts which are clearly derived from Indian models. 

 -South East Asian concepts of kingship and authority, even in regions which are now dominated by Islam, owe much too ancient Hindu political theory. The Thai monarchy, though following Hinayana Buddhism of the Sinhalese type, still requires the presence of Gour Brahmans (who by now have become Thai in all but name) for the proper performance of its ceremonials. 

- The traditional dance and shadow-puppet theatres in many South-East Asian regions, in Thailand, Malaya, and Java for example, continue to fascinate their audiences with the adventures of Rama and Sita and Hanuman. 

- It is difficult to determine the precise Indian influence on the great South-East Asian monuments as the Borobodur stupa in Java and the Khmer temples of Cambodia. These structures are obviously in the Indian tradition. Their ground-plans, for example, and the subject matter of their sculptural decoration, can easily be related to Indian religious texts. 

“Yet a careful study of monuments such as these suggests that the Indian aspects are only one part of the story. While beyond doubt showing signs of Indian influence yet Borobodur and Angkor Wat are not copies of Indian structures. There exists nothing quite like them in the Indian archaeological record. The vast majority of the Hindu and Buddhist monuments of South East Asia which were constructed in the pre-European period, that is to say before the opening of the sixteenth century, possess, as it were, a definite South-East Asian flavor. It is reasonable to consider the styles of art and architecture of the Khemrs, Chams, and Javanese as styles in their own right and something much more than the imitation of Indian prototypes. These styles, as codes and other scholars have expressed, It, are Indianized rather than Indian. The Indian inheritance in South-East Asia is not to be found in the unthinking repetition of Indian forms, rather, it is to be seen in the inspiration which Indian gave to south East Asia to adopt its own cultures so as to absorb and develop Indian concepts. The resulting syntheses are peculiar to South-East Asia. 

The images of Buddha and Vishnu, lingas and other Hindu cult objects of the early period are far more ‘Indian’ and far less characteristic of any regional culture. Almost ubiquitous in south-east Asia, for example is a category of Buddha image showing very clear signs of Gupta or Amravati influence, and some examples of this can, on the established principles of India iconography, be dated to very early in the Christian era. Specimens have been found in Indo-China, Thailand, Burma, Malayisa, Indonesia, and the Philippines. 

In time of process of regional evolution, the interaction of India and indigenous ideas began to produce a number of distinctive styles of Indianite south-east Asian art and architecture. The man art of Burma and of the so-called kingdom of Dvaravati in what is now Thailand, while retaining much that might be called Gupta, and by the sixth century A.D. begun to show a number of distinctive features of its own, some of them easy to detect by eye but very hard to define verbally. Perhaps the most obvious representation of the human face, which comes to show Physical, features characteristics of a non-Indian ethnic group. The Khemrs, Chams, and Javanese had all likewise by the end of the eights century evolved styles so individual as to have become something much more than a reflection of one or more Indian prototypes. 

There is much evidence to suggest that Indian ideas, as well as Indian art, were modified in ‘Further Indian’ through the influence of indigenous cultures. 

The cult of the Devaraja, the God King, though certainly expressed in Indian terminology, developed, so many scholars believe, into a distinctive corpus the political and cosmological ideas which behind the proliferation of Khmer temples built in the form of mystic mountains and the Javanese chandis which were not only places of worship but also royal tombs and mechanisms, as it were, designed to line the dynasty on earth with the spirit world. No more extreme examples of this cult with its identification on flower  with God, be it Siva, Vishnu or Buddha, can be found than in Angkor Thom, the city of the late twelth and  thirteenth century Khmer ruler Jayavarma VII. Here, on the gateway towers of the city, and on its central monuments, the Bayon, the face of the king himself becomes the dominant architecture motif. From all four sides of every tower of the Bayon, Jayavarman VII looks out over his capital, his lips and eyes suggesting an enigmatic and slightly malevolent smile. This is something which the Roman emperors, who defined themselves in their own lifetimes, would have understood, but which would have been beyond the comprehension of the great Hindu and Buddhist dynasties of India. The Devaraja cult of the Khemrs, Chams, and Javanese Idealized kings has survived to the present day in Thailand, where it explains many features of the modern Thai monarchy. 

The individually of the major art styles of Indianite south-east Asia is, as we have already noted, to a great extent the result of interaction between Indian and pre -Indian indigenous south-east Asian concepts and traditions. The south -East Asian component in this cultural equation, however, is far more difficult to define than the Indian

By

Shabeer Mon, Asst. Professor, Kerala

This phase was writing, uniformity in weights and measures, homogeneity in pottery designs, etc. The regression covered a period from 1900 BC–1400 BC There was also the shrinkage in the settlement area.  

For instance, Mohenjodaro was reduced to a small settlement of three hectares from the original eighty five hectares towards the end of the late phase. The population appears to have shifted to other areas. It is indicated by the large number of new settlements in the outlying areas of Gujarat, east Punjab, Haryana and Upper Doab during the later Harappan period. 

You may be wondering how the Harappan Civilization came to an end. Well scholars put forward many theories in this regard. 

(i) It is suggested by some scholars that natural calamities such as floods and earthquakes might have caused the decline of the civilization. It is believed that earthquakes might have raised the level of the flood plains of the lower course of Indus River. It blocked the passage of the river water to the sea and resulted in the floods which might have swallowed the city of Mohenjodaro. However, this only explains the decline of Mohenjodaro and not of the whole civilization. 

(ii) Increased aridity and drying up of the river Ghaggar-Harka on account of the changes in river courses, according to some scholars, might have contributed to the decline. This theory states that there was an increase in arid conditions by around 2000 BC. This might have affected agricultural production, and led to the decline. 

(iii) Aryan invasion theory is also put forward as a cause for the decline. According to this, the Harappan civilization was destroyed by the Aryans who came to India from north-west around 1500 BC. However, on the basis of closer and critical analysis of data, this view is completely negated today. Thus, there is no single cause that can explain the decline of the civilization in totality. At the maximum these can explain the decay of certain sites or areas only. 

Hence, each theory has met with criticism. Nevertheless, the archaeological evidence indicates that the Harappan civilization did not collapse all of a sudden but declined gradually and ultimately merged with other local cultures.

By

Shabeer Mon, Asst Professor, Kerala

Who Spread Indian Culture in Southeast Asia? 

Historians have formulated several theories regarding the transmission of Indian culture of Southeast Asia :

    (1) The ‘Kshatriya’ theory; 
    (2) The ‘Vaishya’ theory;
    (3) The ‘Brahmin’ theory. 

The Kshatriya theory states that Indian warriors colonized Southeast Asia; this proposition has now been rejected by most scholars although it was very prominent some time ago. 

The Vaishya theory attributes the spread of Indian culture to traders; it is certainly much more plausible than the Kshatriya theory, but does not seem to explain the large number of Sanskrit loan words in Southeast Asian languages.

The Brahmin hypothesis credits Brahmins with the transmission of Indian culture; this would account for the prevalence of these loan awards; but may have to be amplified by some reference to the Buddhists as well as to be amplified by some reference to the Buddhists as well as to the traders. We shall return to these theories, but first we shall try to understand the rise and fall of the Kshatriya theory.

It owed its origin to the Indian freedom movement. Indian historians, smarting under the stigma of their own colonial subjection, tried to compensate for this by showing that al least in ancient times Indians had been strong enough to establish colonies of their own. In 1926 the Greater India society was established in Calcutta and in subsequent years the renewed Indian historian R.C. Majumdar published his series of studies, Ancient Indian colonies in the Far East. This school held that Indian kings and warriors had established such colonies and the Sanskrit names of South East Asian rulers seemed to provide ample supporting evidence. At least this hypothesis stimulated further research, though it also alienated those intellectuals of Southeast Asia who rejected the idea of having once been colonized by a ‘Greater India’. As research progressed it was found that there was very little proof of any direct Indian political influence in those states of Southeast Asia. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that Southeast Asian rulers had adopted Sanskrit names them-selves – thus such names could not be adduced as evidence for the presence of Indian kings. 

The Vaishya theory, in contrast, emphasized a much more important element of the Indian connection with Southeast Asia. Trade had indeed been the driving force behind all these early contacts. Inscriptions also showed that guides of Indian merchants had established outposts in many parts of Southeast Asia. Some of their inscriptions were written in languages such as Tamil. However, if such merchants had been the chief agents of the transmission of Indian culture, then all their languages should have made an impact on those of Southeast Asia. But this was not so: Sanskrit and, to some extent, languages. The traders certainly provided an important transmission belt for all kinds of cultural influences. Nevertheless, they did not play the crucial role which some scholars have attributed to them. One of the most important arguments against the Vaishya theory is that some of the earliest traces of Indianite states in Southeast Asia are not found in the coastal areas usually frequented by the traders, but in mountainous, interior areas. 

The Brahmin theory is in keeping with what we have shown with regard to the almost contemporary spread of Hindu culture in Southern and Central India. There Brahmins and Buddhist and Jain monks played the major role in transmitting cultural values and symbols, and in disseminating the style of Hindu kingship. In addition to being religious specialists, the Brahmins also knew the Sanskrit codes regarding law (dharmasastra), the art of government (arthasastra), and art and architecture (silpasastra). They could teach serve as development planners’ in many different fields and were accordingly welcome to Southeast Asian rulers who may have just emerged from what we earlier described as first-and second phase state formation. 

The Dynamics of Cultural Borrowings 

What was the role of the people of Southeast Asia in this process of cultural borrowing?

Were they merely passive recipients of a culture bestowed upon them by them by the Indians?

Or did they actively participate in this transfer? 

The passive thesis was originally emphasized by Indian advocates of the ‘Greater India’ idea, as well by as European scholars who belonged to the elite of the colonial powers then dominant in Southeast Asia. The concept of an earlier ‘Indianization’ of Southeast Asia seemed to provide a close parallel with the later ‘Europeanization’ under colonial to provide a close parallel with the later “Europeanization” under colonial rule. The first trenchant criticism of this point of view came from the young Dutch scholar JC van Leur. 

Van Leur highlighted the great skill and courage of Indonesian seafarers and emphasized the fact that Indonesian rulers themselves had invited Indian Brahmins and had thus taken a very active role in the process of cultural borrowing. Van Leur’s book an Indonesian trade and society was published posthumously, in 1955. In the meantime, further research has vindicated his point of view.

The Indian influence is no longer regarded as the prime cause of cultural development; rather, it was a consequence of a development, which was already in progress in Southeast Asia. Early Indonesian inscriptions show that there was a considerable development of agriculture, before Indian influence made it felt. 

However, indigenous tribal organization was egalitarian and prevented the emergence of higher forms of political organization. The introduction of such forms required at least a rudimentary form of administration and a kind of levitation of these now governmental forms which would make them, in the initial stages, acceptable to the people. It was at this point that chieftains and clan heads required Brahmin assistance. Although trade might have helped to spread the necessary information the initiative came for those indigenous rulers. The invited Brahmins were isolated from the ruler. People and kept in touch only with their patrons. In this way the royal styles emerged in South-East Asia just as it had done in India.

A good example of this kind of development is provided by the earliest Sanskrit inscription found of Indonesia (it was recorded in Eastern Borneo around 400 A.D.) Several inscription on large Megaliths mention a ruler whose name, Kundunga shows not the slightest trace of Sanskrit influence. His son assumed a Sanskrit name, Ashwa Varman, and founded a dynasty (vansa). His grandson Mulavarman, the author of the inscription, celebrated great sacrifices and gave valuable presents to the Brahmins. Of the latter it is explicitly state that they had come here – most likely from India. After being consecrated by the Brahmins, Mulavarman subjected the neighboring rulers and made them tribute givers (kara–da). Thus these inscriptions present in a nutshell the history of the rise of an early Indonesian dynasty. It seems that the dynasty had been founded by a son of clan chiefly independently of the Brahmins, who on their arrival consecrate the ruler of the third generation. With this kind of moral support and the new administrative know-how the ruler could subject his neighbors and obtain tribute from them. 

The process paralleled that which we have observed in south and Central India. In its initial stages, however, it was not necessarily due to Indian influence at all. Around the middle of the first millennium AD several of such small states seem to have arisen in this way in South-East Asia. They have left only a few inscription and some ruins of temples, most of them were obviously very short lived. There must have been a great deal of competition, with many petty rajas vying with each other and all wishing to be recognized as maharajas entitled to all the Indian paraphernalia of Kingship. Indian influenced increased in this way and in the second half of the first millennium AD a hectic activity of temple erection could be observed on Java and in Cambodia, where the first larger realms hacdome into existence. 

Though it is now generally accepted that Southeast Asian rulers played on active role in this process of state formation, we cannot entirely rule out the occasional direct contributing of Indian adventures who proceeded to the East. The most important example of this kind is that of the early history of Fuman at the mouth of the Mekong. Chinese sources report the tale of a Brahmin, Kaundinya, who was inspired by a divine dream to go to the Funan. There he vanquished the local Naga princess by means of his holy bow and married her, thus founding the first dynasty of Funan in the late first century AD. We have heard of a similar legend in a connection with the rise of the Pallava dynasty and this way indicate that Kaundinya came from south India where the Kaundinyas were known as a famous Brahmin lineage.  A Chinese source of the fourth century AD describes an Indian usurper of the throne of Funan. His name is given as Chu Chan-t’ an’ ‘Chu’ always indicates a person of Indian origin and Chan-t-an could have been a transliteration of the title ‘Chandana’ which can be traced to the Indo-Scythians of northern India. 

Presumably a member of the dynasty went to Southeast Asia after having been defeated by Samudragupta. In the beginning of the fifth century AD another Kaudinya arrived in Funan and of his it is said in the Chinese’s annals: 

He was originally a Brahmin from India. There a supernatural voice told him: ‘You must go to Funan, Kaundinya rejoiced in his heart. In the south he arrived at “P” an-p’ an. The people of Funan appeared to him. The whole kingdom rose up with joy, went before him and chose him king. He changed all the laws to confirm to the system of India. 

This report on the second Kaundinya is the most explicit reference to an Indian ruler who introduced his laws in Southeast Asia. In the same period we notice a general wave of Indian influence in Southeast Asia, for which the earliest Sanskrit inscription of Indonesia – discussed above – also provide striking evidence. We must however, note that even in the case of early Funan there was no military intervention. Kaundinya had obviously stayed for some time at P’an-P’an at the Isthmus of Siam, then under the control of Funan and he was later invited by the notables of the court of Funan to ascent the throne at a time of political unrest..

By Shabeer Mon, Asst.Professor, Kerala

The origin of Chalukyas (early/western/Badami/Vatapi) is controversial. Bilhana, the author of Vikramarka-deyagharita, the court poet of Vikramaditya VI, and the later Chalukya inscriptions, lay claim to Ayodhya as their ancestral home. Some regard them as related to the Gurjaras. Whatever might be their origin, by the mid 6th century A.D., Pulakesi I carved out a small area around Vathapi or Badami. He performed an Ashwamedha ceremony. His successor was Kirthivarman who conquered both Konkan and north Kerala. Many other conquests are attributed to him but the claim cannot be substantiated. His successor was Mangalesa who conquered the Kadambas and the Gangas. He was killed and succeeded by his nephew, Pulakesi. The Aihole inscription of Pulakesi I deal with the history of this dynasty.

The Chalukya power reached its zenith under Pulakesi II (609 to 642 A.D.). To begin with, he subjugated his rebellious feudatories and neighbours. He captured the capital of the Kadambas; overawed the Ganges of Mysore; and subdued the Mauravas of North Konkan. The laths of Gujarat, the Malavas, and the Gurjars also submitted to him. King Harsha was defeated by him. Another victim was the Pallava king, Mahendra Varman. The Cholas, the Keralas and the Pandyas submitted to him. He occupied Pistapura and installed his Brother, Kubja-Vishnuvardhana, as his representative. But in 642 A.D. the Pallava king, Narasimha Varman, stormed Vathapi and probably killed Pulakesi II, this was followed by a period of confusion from 642 to 655 A.D.

Pulakesi II maintained friendly relations with Khusru II, the king of Persia. The reception given to the Persian Mission is depicted in one of the Ajanta cave paintings. Hieun-Tsang visited his kingdom. He describes it as rich and fertile. “The inhabitants were proud-spirited and war-like, grateful for fervor and revengeful for wrongs, self-sacrificing towards suppliants in distress and sanguinary to death with any who treated them insultingly.” About Pulakesi II, the traveler observes, “His plans and undertakings are widespread and his munificent actions are felt over a great distance. 

After his death, the Chalukya dynasty was in an eclipse, His son Vikramaditya I (655 to 680 A.D.) plundered the Pallava capital, Kanchi. Vikramaditya’s successors, Vinayaditya and Vijayditya, were powerful rulers. During the reign of Vikramaditya II the Pallavas were once more defeated. Probably, he drove back the Arab intrusion into southern Gujarat. His son, Kirti, Varman II, was defeated by the Rashtrakuta roller, Dantidurga, in 753 A.D. and with him the history of the dynasty to an end.

Regarding their achievements, the first was their maritime power. It is said that Pulkasi, with a hundred ships, attacked and captured the capital of a bostile state. The central government of Chalukyas exercised a paternalistic control over village administration. This is unlike the administrative practices of south India. The Chalukyas received a limited income from land. Added to this, the earnings from trade were not considerable. Much of what the State earned was spent on army. The standing army was supplemented and cavalry. Often, army officers were sued in civil administration, whenever an emergency arose.

Note on Chalukya-Pallava Conflict:

The Chalukya-Pallava war began with Pulakesi II and ended with the collapse of both the dynasties significantly, the power that raised thereafter, the Rashtrakutas and the Cholas, continued the same sort of struggle. This was because the Chalukya-Pallava struggled was to a great extent determined by the geographical location of the Chalukya and Pallava kingdoms. 

After the first about was over, the Pallavas avenged their defeat during the days of Narasimhavarman I. He captured the lost territories. In this he was assisted by the king of Ceylon. He entered the capital of Badami in 642 A.D. and assumed the title of Vathapikonda, that is, the conqueror or Vathapi. 

After that, for the next twelve years there was a respite; the Pallavas were involved in naval wars while supporting the Ceylonese kings, and the Chalukyas were troubled by their feudatories, After the Chalukyan house was set in order in 655, they re-occupied the territories lost to the Pallavas. This was the third phase. Soon the tables were reversed. There was a rift in the Chalukyan royal family. Taking advantage of this, the Pallavas once again entered Badami. Details of relating to this campaign are to be found in the Pallava grant found near Kanchi. This was the fourth phase. 

The fifth phase started when the Chalukyas and the Gangas united in 731 to attack the Pallavas. The reigning Pallava king was killed and Kanchi was occupied. Later, the council of ministers chose Nandivarman II. 

In the last phase the ball was in the court of Pallavas. At this time, the neighbors of the Pallavas in the south, that is, the Pandays, Joined the conflict. The Pandyas of Madura were not well disposed towards the Pallavas. In the meantime the Chalukyas wre threatened by the Arabs, the latter already being in occupation of Sing. While the Chalukyas were engrossed in the threat from the north, one of their feudatories Dantidurga, broke away from the but they, too, within a century met their end; the last of the Pallavas was assassinated by the son of a feudatory.

Chalukya’s Religion and Art:

Regarding religion, the Chalukya kings were Hindu Brahmins but they respected other faiths too. The Chinese traveler noticed more than one hundred Buddhist monasteries. Buddhism was on the decline although Hieun-Tsang opined that it was popular. Jainism enjoyed royal patronage. Buddhism gradually gave way to Jainism and Brahmins. Sacrifices were given great importance and many treaties were written on them. The king himself performed a number of sacrifices including Ashwamedha and Vajpeya. Despite this stress on the orthodox form of Hindu religion, the Puranic version grew popular. It was this popularity that gave momentum to the building of temples in honor of Vishnu, Shiva and other Gods. 

Regarding architecture, the Chalukyas perfected the art of stone-building stone finally joined without mortar. Under the auspices of the Chalukyas, the Buddhists and the Brahmins built cave temples. The cave frescoes began earlier but the finest specimens of them belonged to the Chalukyas are of the 5th and 6th centuries. The murals depict both religious and secular themes. In the first monastic hall of the Ajanta one mural depict the reception given to a Persian embassy by Pulakesi II. The temples of Chalukyas belong to the Deccan style. His tradition began earlier in the rock-cut temples of Elephanta. The aihole and Badami temples of the Chalukyas represent the Deccan style. This style reached its culmination in the Kailash temple of Ellora a Rashtrakuta achievement. 

The cave temples of the Chalukyas were the counter-parts of Buddhists save temples as borne out by the Vishnu temple at Badami. Apart from this feature, the Chalukyan temples were stone-built-stone finely joined without mortar like the temple of Shiva at Meguti. This temple has a prasasthi on Pulakesi composed by Ravikriti. Out of all their temples, the best reserved is the Vishnu temple at Aihole. It bears an inscription of Vikramaditya II and is built on the lines of the Buddhists Cahitya-hall. One more temple is the famous Virupakasha temple at Pattadakal. This temple has a pillared mandapam or meeting place for people. The roof is supported by sixteen monolithic pillars with sculptured bracket capitals

The Chalukyas erected a large number of temples at Aihole. This particular style was followed in the close by towns and Badami and Pattadakal. Aihole had 70 temples, whereas, Pattadakal had 10 temples. In the latter are found the famous temples of Papanatha and Virupakasha. The walls of the temples are adorned with beautiful sculptures representing scenes of Ramayana. 

After the eight century land grants were made to these temples, a common feature of temple maintenance in South India. The evidence relating to this aspect is recorded on the walls of the temples. Also the Jaina followers erected some temples in Karnataka during the days of the Chalukays. 

The Chalukya temples were an evolution of the Gupta shirne. However, at the apex of their glory, the Chalukyan temples bear evidence to both the northern and Dravidian styles of architecture. The examples of this development are the rock-cut temples in Elephanta. The Kalidashnatha temple built during the days of Rashtrakutas is an example of transition from rock-cut to the free-standing style.

Sanskrit was the language of the day. Vernaculars also came to be developed. An inscription of the seventh century mentions Kannada as the local language, and Sanskrit the language of the elite.

Thus, even though the delineation of the political history of the Chalukays is quite dull, their importance consists in their having continued the traditions of India. Thus, even though the history of India appears to be a Jig-saw puzzle, there is a pattern underlying it.

By Shabeer Mon,  Asst.Professor, Kerala

Kingship was attributed to define origin. The kings claimed their descent from the God Brahma. It has hereditary. Yet, on one occasion a king was elected. Most of the kings were accomplished scholars. Mahendravarman I wrote the famous burlesque, Masttavilasa Prahsana. Many of the vaishnava azhvars and saiva nayanars flourished during their rule. 

The kings adopted high-sounding titles like maharajadhiraja, dharma-maharjadhiraja (great king of kings ruling in accordance with the dharma), agnistomavajpeya, asvamedha-yaji (he who has performed the agnithtoma-vajapeya and asvamedha sacrifices) they were assisted by ministers. History shows that the ministerial council played a great part in the state policy in the later period. 

A hierarchy of officials in provincial administration, the governor of a province was assisted by district officers, who in turn worked in collaboration with autonomous local bodies. In local administration the meeting of assembles were frequent, and the administration the meeting of assemblies were frequent, and the assemblies were of many varieties and of many levels. Often special meetings were held. As the village level the assembly was the sabha which looked after almost all the matters of the village, along with endowments, irrigation, crime, maintaining census and other necessary records, Courts at villages level dealt with minor criminal cases. The judicial courts of the town and districts were presided over by government officials, climaxing with the king as the supreme arbiter of justice. The sabha worked in close association with the urar, and informal gathering of the entire village. Above this unit was a district administration. Finally, the head man of the villages was the link between the village assembly and the official administration. 

Theoretically the king owned the land. The status of a village depended on the prevalent land tenure. The fist variety was the village with inter-caste population where in the people paid taxes to the king. The second was the brahmadeya village in which the entire land was donated to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins. A variation of this village was the agrahars grant which was an entire village settlement of Brahmins. Both these forms were exempt from royal taxes. In the devadana village the revenue was donated to a temple, and the temple authorities in turn provided employment for the villagers in the temple whenever possible. In the Pallava period the first two categories of villages were in vogue. 

Apart from these major points relating to land there was a special category of land, the sripatti or tank land. The revenue from such a land was sent apart for the maintenance of the village tank. The tank itself was built by the efforts of the entire village. All shared the water stored in the tank. Very many inscriptions of the Pallavas refer to the up-keep of tanks. 

There are two Points about taxes. The land revenue varied from one-sixth to one tenth of the produce of the land. This was paid to the State. The local taxes that were collected in a village were spent for the needs of the village. As land revenue was necessarily small, the State revenue was supplemented by additional taxes on draught cattle, marriage-parties, potters, makers of clarified butter, textile manufacturers, washer men and weavers. The major source of revenue was from land, since the revenue from mercantile activity was not fully exploited. 

Regarding expenditure, most to the revenue want for the maintenance of army. The king preferred a standing army instead of feudal levee. The army primarily consisting of food soldiers and cavalry along with a sprinkling of elephants. Indeed the Pallavas developed a navy although the mercantile activity was not great. Two dockyards were built at Mahabalipuram and Nagapatnam. This pioneering effort of the Pallavas reached its climax during the days of cholas. The navy served a double purpose. It was meant for defense and also assisted the maritime trade with south-east Asia, particularly with the three kingdoms of Kambuja (Cambodia) Champa (Annam) and Shrivijaya (Malayan peninsula and Sumatra). 

PLLAVA ART: 

Four distinct stages of architecture can be gleaned from the Pallava temples. The first is the Mahendra style. The influence of the cave style of architecture is to be seen in an ancient pillar engraved in the Ekambaranatha (Kanchipuram) temple. The second is the Mamalla style. The seven Pagodas are small temples, each of which is hewn out of a single rock boulder. They lie near Mahabalipuram, founded by Narasimhavarman. These monolithic temples are complete with all the details of an ordinary temples and stand as an undying testimony to the superb quality of the Pallava art. The third is the Rajasimha style. The most famous temple of this style is the Kailasha style. The most famous temple of this style is the Kailasha temple of Kanchi. It has a pyramidal tower; a flat-roofed mandapam and a series of cells surround it resembling rathas. This style is a very elaborate one foreshadowing the ornate Chola architecture. The fourth is the Aparajita style. This is more ornate resembling the Chola architecture. A few temples built in the style are found at Dalavanur. The note worthy feature of some shrines is that they are aborned by beautiful life-like images of Pallava kings and their queens. All told they are unique in the history of temple architecture. 

Pallava sculpture owed more to the Buddhist tradition. On the whole it is more monumental and linear in form, thus avoiding the typical ornamentation of the Deccan sculpture. The free standing temples at Aithole and Badami in the Deccan and the Kanchipuram and Mahabalipuram in the Tamil country provided a better background for sculpture than the rock-cut temples. And the Pallava sculpture was monumental and linear in form resembling the Gupta sculpture. Although the basic form was derived from the older tradition, the end result clearly reflected its local genius. 

Now for literature it has been recently proved that Bharavi and Dandinlived in the Pallava court. Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniyam and Dandin’s Dashakumaracharita were the two masterpieces. One of Dandin’s poems was written with such skill that when read normally it gives the story of the Ramayana; and when read in reverse, the study of Mahabharata. Dandin was the author of a standard work on poetics. Till the eight century Pallava influence was predominant in Cambodia. Saivism was the official form of worship. And the Pallava type of sikhara is to be found in the temples of Java, Cambodia and Annam. This dissemination of Hindu culture proves that it was dynamic till 1,000 A.D. in southern India. 

Thus, the Pallavas rendered invaluable service to the country both within and without as they were one of the torch bearers of Hindu civilization to south-east Asia. Far more singular is their contribution to architecture-transforming the architecture and sculpture from wood to stone. Smith opines that these great disparimmense lengths of the course of Indian history and the extreme slowness with which changes have been effected.

By Shabeer Mon, Asst.Professor, Kerala

The summer heat drives us towards shades from trees. Those who are indoor, use fans and coolers. Those who are affluent install an air conditioner. Now on the same analogy, we are suffering from the heat of worldliness. We have to seek the cool shade of Divine Name chanted with love and faith. For every season nature provides corresponding remedies also. In hot summer seasons, we see the abundance of watermelon, and other seasonal fruits which appease the heat. For this Kaliyuga, God has compassionately provided an easy remedy, i.e., repeating the name of God with love and faith. Even in this practice, we are not consistent. Let us make it a habit to repeat the name of God during morning and evening for Five minutes at least with concentration and devotion. The story of Ajaamilan – a classic example of how taking the name of God will help us. This story is part of the Bhagavatham.

Ajaamilan was born in a Brahmin family and did his duties well. He was married to a very pious lady who served him well and had good children. One day when he went to the forest to collect wood for homam, he met a woman there. He was attracted towards her and in his lust for her, forgot his wife and children and started living with her in the forest. He was ready to do anything for his new found love and even killed animals for her sake for food. He lived a sinful life with her and had many children. He was very close to his youngest son whom he had named Narayana. Years rolled on and it was time for Ajaamilan to leave this world. Yama doothas came with the Yama pasa to take him away and Ajaamilan experienced the fear of death. He panicked and called his son Narayana. The youngest son was playing at a distance and did not hear him. Ajaamilan had to call him many times uttering the word “Narayana, Narayana” Bang came the Vishnu doothas hearing the name of Narayana. The Vishnu doothas, who were replicas of Vishnu in color and appearance, asked the Yama doothas to go as they had to take Ajaamilan to Vaikuntam.

The Yama doothas who had come there in the first place to take Ajaamilan to Yamaloka because of his numerous sins, were surprised to see the Vishnu doothas there ready to take him to Vaikuntam. The Vishnu doothas told the Yama doothas that Ajaamilan had uttered the Lord’s name “Narayana” several times and that is why they had come to his rescue. Not able to understand how despite so many sins Ajaamilan was being helped by the Vishnu doothas, the Yama doothas went back to Yamaloka to ask their master Yamadharmaraja about this. Yama explained to the doothas the greatness of Nama sankeerthanam and instructed them not to go anywhere near Ajaamilan.  Ajaamilan lost his fear of death once the Yama doothas left and the Vishnu doothas blessed him and let him continue his time on earth. Regretting his sinful life Ajaamilan went to the banks of River Ganga and spent the rest of his life doing the namajapam of the Lord. Finally when it was time for him to leave this earth, Vishnu doothas alone came and took him to Vaikuntam. 

Listen to the divine voice of Bharatratna Smt.MS Subbulakhsmi Nama Japan Kyu Chhod Diya

Naam japan kyu chhod diya
krodh na chhoda jhoot na chhoda
satya bachan kyu chhod diya
jhhute jag mein dil lalchakar
asal vatan kyun chhod diya
kaudi ko to khoob sambhala
lal ratan kyu chhod diya
jin sumiran se ati sukh paave
tin sumiran kyu chhod diya
khalish ek bhagwaan bharose
tan man dhan kyu na chhod diya

The first important ruler was Siva Skandavarman who performed an Aswamedha and other Vedic sacrifices. His capital was Kanchi. Samudragupta forced the Pallava king, Vishnugopa, to acknowledge the Gupta suzerainty. And the story of the Pallavas in the 5th and 6th centuries is very sketchy.

By end of the sixth century the Pallavas re-emerged on the scene. Simhavishnu (575 to 600 A.D.) captured the territory of the Cholas and humbled the pride of his neighbors including Ceylon. He was ovavaishnava faith as borne out by the magnificent reliefs representing Simhavishnu and two of his consorts in the Varsha cave at Mamallpuram. 

With Mahendravarman I, the son and successor of Simhavishnu, began the titanic tripartite struggle with the Chalukyas of Vathapi and the Cholas. The Chalukya king, Pulakesin II, captured Kanchi. Pulakesin II won the pitched battle fought at Pullalur, fifteen miles north of Kanchi. However, Narsimhavaram I, the son and successor of Mahendravarman I, defeated Pulakesi  II in many battles and probably killed Pulakesi himself. He also defeated the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas. He even sent two naval expeditions to Ceylon and placed his protégé on the throne of Ceylon. Narasimhavarman I was a great builder too. Mamallapuram was embellished during his time. Hiuen-Tsang visited his kingdom. He states that the soil was fertile and produced abundance of grain; flowers and fruits were many precious gems and other luxury articles were known; and the people were courageous and greatly attached to learning, honesty and truth. 

Narasimhavarman II. He too, fought with the chalukyas. He was succeeded by Paramesvaravarman I in whose reign Vikramadhitya I of the Chalukyas, in alliance with the Pandyas, renewed the hostilities. He probably captured the city of Kanchi. Later, Paramesvarvarman I defeated Vikramadhitya II. The Pallava records claim that the Chalukya attack was hurled back. 

Yet, as we know, the Chalukyas once again swept through the Pallava dominions under the captainship of Vikramaditya II in the 8th century, A.D. Nandivarman was defeated and Kanchi was captured. By then, the Pallavas faced a serious challenge from the rising dynasties of the south. The Pandyas advanced along the banks of Kanchi. The last nail in the coffin was driven by Aditya Chola who defeated Aparajita Pallava and took possession of his kingdom towards the end of the 9th century A.D.

 The Chalukya victory over the Pallavas in 740 A.D. was the beginning of the end of the Pallavas supremacy. The Cholas, in alliance with the Pandyas, defeated the Pallavas by the close of the 9th century. Very soon even the Chalukyas collapses but the Pallavas: chiefs continued to exist till the end of the 13th century. After the 17th century. All traces of the Pallavas as a distinct community of clan disappeared; but the Kallar, Palli and Vellala castes trace their origin from them.

Pallava Society

The Pallavas political history covering four centuries is tortuous and complex but their contribution to society is significant in two ways – completion of Aryanisation of southern India, and consummation of traditional or indigenous art. 

The Aryanization of south India as completed during the period of the Pallavas. Their grants show that the Aryan structure of society has gained firm hold on the south by the sixth century. Grants to Brahmins are specifically mentioned which show that the north Indian Dharma Sastras had acquired authority in the Pallava kingdom. Sanskrit had established its sway. The University of Kanchi played to doubt a great part in India, and we know from Hiuen-Tsang that it was the greatest center of education in the south. Vatsyayana, the logician, the author of Nyaya Bhashya who lived in the fourth century. A.D, seems to have been Pandit of Kanchi. Denage the famous Buddhist dialectical is also said to have had his training in the southern capital. In the fifth century we have epigraphic record of Nayurrasarman of the Kadamba family going for higher studies to Kanchi. In fact it can legitimately be claimed that Kanchi of the Pallavas was the great center from which the Sanksritization of the south as well as the Indian colonies in the far-east proceeded. 

Pallavas were orthodox Hindus and they patronized the great reformation of the medival ages. Most of the kings are brahminical Hindus devoted to the worship of Shiva. Mahendravarman was the first, who about the middle of his reign, adopted the worship of Siva and he was influenced by the famous saints of the age. He showed reverence to other Hindu gods also. But, he was intolerant of Jainism and destroyed some Jain monasteries. Some Vaishnava and Saiva saints lived during his time. In general, the Pallavas were tolerant to other sects. Buddhism and Jainism lost their appeal. Indeed Hiuen-Tsang saw at Kanchi one hundred Buddhist monasteries and 10,000 priests belonging to the Mahayana school but this has to be taken with a pinch of salt. 

In general, the vedic tradition was super imposed on the local traditions, As Brahmins were custodians of Vedic tradition, they automatically enjoyed privileges. The Vedic tradition, a little later, received stimulus because of Sankarcharya. The Temples were the focal points. The out-castes were not permitted to enter the precincts of the temple. 

Even then, Tamil saints of the 6th and 7th centuries, who were the progenitors of the bhakti movement, mostly belonged to the lower castes. The hymns and sermons of the nayanars (Shaivism) and the Azhwars (vaishnavism) continued the tradition. Amongst the Shaiva saints the important were Appar (supposed to have converted Mahendravarman) Sambandar, Manikkawasagar, and Sundarar. The most ………………………….. about them was the presence of women, Saints, such as Andal. This Bhakti cult was derived from the ideas in the Upanishads and also from the heterodox doctrines. Dr. Thapar opines that the concepts of compassionate God was a resultant of the impact of Buddhist ideas particularly the Bodhisattva concept, although the Christians in Malabar might have provided a new perception of religion. What the bhakti movement contributed was great. The religious hymns and music as popularized by Tamil saints were sung during temple rituals. Dancing was also included. From the Pallava period onwards dancers were maintained by all the prosperous temples. 

Regarding education, in the early days, education was impacted by Jains and Buddhists. The Jaina institutions were located at Madurai and Kanchi. Soon brahminical institutions superseded them. Ghatkias or Hindu colleges were attached to the temples. They were primarily Brahmin institutions are mostly confined themselves to advanced studies. And in the 8th century the maths also became popular, which was an ominous institutions because of its being a rest-house, a feeding center and an education center. In all these colleges Sanskrit was the medium of instruction which was also the official language. Kanchi, the capital, was a great centre of Sanskrit learning. The scientific works of Varahmihira and the poetry of Kalidasa and Bharavi were-known in the Pallava country. And Parameshvaravarman I granted the Kurran copper-plate that was made for the recitation of the Mahabharata in a mandapa at the village of Kurram, near Kanjeevaram. 

By the beginning of the 7th century the Pallavas of Kanchi, the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pandyas of Madurai emerged as the three major states. By the time the political rule of these dynasties came to an end, an event known as the revolt of the Kalabharas took place. The Pallavas, the Kadambas (North Canara in Karnataka) and the Chalukyas of Badami along with along with a large number of their contemporaries were the portage of vedic sacrifices. Logically, the brahmins emerged as an important segment of society but at the expense of the peasantry. Possibly, this predominance was oppressive leading to the revolt of the kalabhars in the 6th century. A.D. It is also said that they overthrew in numerable kings and established their old in Tamilnadu. They ended the Brahmadeva rights earlier granted to brahmins in numerous villages. It is also said that the Kalabhras patronized Buddhism. In the end, the revolt of the kalabhras could be ended only by the Joint efforts of the Pandays, the Pallavas and the Chalukyas.

By Shabeer Mon, Asst.Professor, Kerala

· Three of these, Musiri, Korkai and Kavarippattinam are known from anthologies to have been chief ports of three early kingdoms.

· Another city, called either Perimula or Perimuda, is described as “the greatest emporium of trade in India”. It was on the Vaigai delta near Rameshwaram.

· A walled city called kapadapuram was situated around tambraparani delta.

· Akkadu village in Tanjavur has been suggested to have been the Arkatos of Ptolemy which was also the second capital of the Cholas.

· Musiri of anthologies was known as Muziris of the Greeks.

· A subsidiary capital, Tondi has been identified with Ponnani.

· Greek records also mention Vaikkarai, Nilakanta and Netravati as ancient port towns in Kerala.

· Pantar in the South of Kerala and Puli (around Tuluva) were ports of the Sangam period.

· Kaveripumppattinam was known to Ptolemy as Khaberis (Puhar of literature).

· Vellaiyan-Irrupu (“white man’s settlement”) is located near Kaveripattinam.

· Kalaiyur, located near Kaveripattinam has yielded a structure which was identified as a dock by S.R. Rao, Korkai, a port of the Sangam period, was a pearl market and the seat of the Pandyan vice-royalty.

· Manabalipuram may have been Ptolemy’s mélange (Mavilankai) which is said to have been an emporium.

· It is also identifiable with the port of Nirpayarrurai mentioned in Perumpanarruppadai.

· Marakanam, north of Pondicherry, appears to have been a harbour and is identified with Sopatma of the Periplus and Eyil of Sirupanarruppadai.

· The mouth of the Vellaru was an Arab ship building port.

· The place called Agarlu in the periplus was situated near Tondi on Palk bay (different from Tondi in Kerala).

· It exported pearls and muslins.

· The end of the peninsula, called Kodi, was one of the earliest points of the South known in the north (Arthashastra) and was used by the Greeks as a fixed point of navigation.

· Nearby was situated Pasika mentioned in the Arthashastra as a source of pearl.

· Muthupettai, west of the Vaigai delta, was a pearl market.

· Tirucendur, South of the Tambraparani delta, has a well known temple of murukan, said in myths to protect the Pandyas from incursions from the sea.

· This is probably the same as Sentil of Tirumurukarruppadai and is certainly one of the earliest Pandyan sacred spots.

· Somewhere nearby was the early Pandyan capital of Kapadapuram, and also on the coast in the same region was South Madurai.

· These are supposed to have been the first two Pandyan capitals and the sites of the first two literary academies, Kanniyakumari (Cape Comorin) is mentioned as early as Eratosthenes which the Greeks used as a fixed point for navigation. Ptolemy lists it among the ports.

· Bandar and Kodumanam were other ports with a wealth of seaborne imports, Bandar being noted for its pearls and Kodumanam for rare jewels.

· Mention is made of the abundance of quartzite precious stones in the hills of the Chera country.

· Pepper, ginger, rice, sandalwood, ahil, almug, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric, ivory and pearls, gems like beryl (an aquamarine gem) and corundum, cotton and cotton fabrics were the main commodities, which were in great demand in foreign countries.

· Monkeys, deer, peacocks, cheetahs, tigers and elephants were also in demand.

· Kapin (Kavi in Tamil) and Tukim (peacock, Tokai in Tamil) are Hebrew words and these were exported to the western world.

· Similarly, Greek Oruza for rice is derived from Tamil Arisi, English ginger is derieved from Latin Zingiber which in turn was derieved from Tamil Injiver, the Tamil Chiruttai became cheetah in English, cardamom was from kurundam and sandal was derived from Sandana or Sandu.

· We find large hoards of Roman gold coins of the Augustan age in many parts of South India which provide evidence of the brisk trade between Tamilaham and Rome.
· The direct trade route between Tamilaham and Arabia, Egypt and Rome had been well established by the date of the periplus.

· Trade with Rome in the first century AD was so lucrative to the Tamils that the Pandyan king sent two embassies to Augustus (20 BC) to win his favour.

· We have reference to the inability of others to enter the western sea where the Chera led his gold-giving ship.

· One text mentions the ships of titan Veliyan bringing gold.

· Pliny’s reference to an Indian ship carried off to the German coast by wind is also given as evidence.

· Recent excavations on the red sea coast have brought to light graffiti in Tamil Brahmi characters, probably the two names Chatan and Kanan.

· Inscription’s dated to the first century BC from Sri Lanka mention a Damila Vaija, Damila Navika and a Damila Gahapati showing their association with horse trade.

 · A Jataka (480) also mentions Kaveripattam in the Damila country.

By

Shabeer Mon ,Asst.Porfessor, Kerala

1. Narrinai
2. Karuntogai
3. Aingurunuru
4. Padirrupattu
5. Paripadal
6. Kalittogai
7. Ahanamuru
8. Puraanuru.
The group Pattupattu includes:

1. Tirumurugarruppadai
2. Porunararruppadai
3. Sirupanarruppadai
4. Perumbanarruppadai
5. Mullaipattu
6. Maduraikanchi
7. Nedunalvadai
8. Kurinjipattu
9. Pattinappalai
10. Malaipadukanchi

· Some scholars have included Tolkapium, the Tamil grammatical treatise by Tolkappiyar (supposed to be the disciple of Agastya, the famous saint who is said to have crossed the Vindhyas first and propagated the Brahmanical culture in the South), Patinenkilkanakku, the eighteen didactical texts (comprising:

1. Nladiyar
2. Nammanikkadigai
3. Inna Narpadu
4. Iniya Narpadu
5. Kar Narpadu
6. Kalavali Narpadu
7. Aintinai Aimpadu
8. Aintinai Elupadu
9. Tinaimoli Aimpadu
10. Tinaimalai Nurraimpadu
11. Kainnilai (or Innilai)
12. Kural
13. Tirikadugam
14. Charakkovai
15. Palamoli
16. Sirupanchachamulam
17. Mudumo Likkanchi
18. Eladi),

· Silappadikaram and Manimegalai, the twin epics, remnants of poems like Togadur Yattirai and Bharatam of Perundevanar in the Sangam corpus.

The Ettutogai and Pattupattu are together grouped as Melkanakku (the longer serials) for they consist stanzas composed of metre which permits of a larger numbers of lines.

· On the other hand the Kilkkanakku works (the shorter serials) are so called because they consist of poems composed in the Venba metre which permits on an average four lines for each stanza.

· There is another important characterization or division of Sangam literature, i.e., into Aham and Puram.

· The Puram category of literature idealizes love and aspects related to it.

· In Ula, a later day minor form of literature dealing with the ‘King’s sojourn through the streets of the capital city’ the theme is partly Puram and partly Aham but it is in fact Kaikkilai (unilateral love) aspect of Aham literature.

· The Agattiyam, composed by Agattiyar, Tolkappiyar’s real teacher and the oldest exponent of Tamil grammar is lost, except for a few sutras not by medieval commentators. Hence, Tolkappiam is the oldest Tamil literary work extant today.

· The Kural by Tiruvalluvar, a compound of the Dharmasastra, the Arthasastra and the Kamasutra, is universally regarded as a work of immense importance.

· Kakkaippadiniyam, a work on poetics by Kakkaippadiniyar; Pannirupadalam, a work on the twelve different situations in warfare by Tolkappiar and eleven others;

· Tagadur Yattirai by Panmudiyar, Arisil Kilars and other dealing with Perunjeral Irumporai’s invasion of the capital of Adihaiman Neduman Anji;

· The Bharatam by Perundevanar are some works which are lost except for a few stanzas quoted by later composers.

· Some other works mentioned by Adiyarkkunallar and which are lost to us are Perunarai, Perunkuruhu, Pancha Bharatiyam (all by Narada), Isai Nunukkam by Sikandi, Indra Kaliyam, Panchamarabu and Bharata Senapatiyam.

· All these works deal with musico Adiyarkkunallur mentions Seyirriyam, Guan Nul, Bharatam, Agattiyam, Muruval, Jayantam, Nataka-t-Tamil Nul by Mativanan as important works on dance and drama.

· Erambam was a treatise on Mathematics mentioned by Parimelalgar. 

Additional information: 

Tamil is the oldest among the spoken literary languages in South India.

• The earliest known phase of this literature is usually designated the Sangam literature for the reason that the anthologies of odes, lyrics and idylls that form the bulk of that literature were composed by a body of Tamil scholars or poets in three successive literary academies called ‘Sangam’.

• These academies were established by the Pandyan kings.

• The term Sangam was first referred to by Tirunavukkarasu Nayanar (Appar), the Shiva or Saiva saint belonging to the early seventh century in the Tripputtur Tiruttanndaham.

• The next reference is to be found in the contemporary to the lraiyanar Ahappiorul belonging to the ninth century AD.

• This text talks about three successive Sangams, i.e., first Sangam or Talai Sangam, the middle Sangam or Idai Sangam and the last Sangam or Kadai Sangam.

• In the traditional accounts, the first Sangam was constituted at the first Pandyan capital at Ten-Madurai.

• On the occasion of a ‘deluge’, the Pandyan capital and the Sangam was shifted to Kapatapuram, which was also engulfed by sea, and the capital as well as the Sangam were again shifted to Madhurai, an inland city.

• On these occasions of deluge, many texts were lost.

• Silappadikaram and Kalittogai refer to the “loss of territory by deluge”.

• Before the seventh century AD the alternative term for Sangam was Avaiyam or Kudal or its variant Kuttu or Punarkuttu or even Togai.

 By  

Shabeer Mon, Asst.Porfessor, Kerala

• The Cheras ruled over an area comprising north Travancore, Cochin and South Malabar.

•The site of Vanji, the Chera capital has been located by some scholars near Musiri (Cranganore) while many others identify it with the inland city of Karur on the Amaravati river in the Coimbatore district.

• The Cheras had the ankusha (elephant-goad) and the bow and arrow for their emblem. • Musiri was their chief port, but there were many others e.g., Tondi (Kadalundi), Marandai, Naravu (Naura and Nitrias of the Greek writers) and Bakare (Porkad), etc.

• The information on the geneolgoical history of the Cheras largely comes from the Padirrupattu (ten tens).

• Some sundry information is also gathered from the Purananuru and the Silappadikaram.

• One of the earliest and better known Chera rulers was Udiyanjeral (130 AD).

• The titles Vanavaramban ‘one whose kingdom is bounded by the sky’ or ‘by the sea’, and Perunjoran Udiyan are applied to him by the poet Mudinagarayar in Puram literature.

• Udiyanjeral was famous for his lavish hospitality; and his kitchen had become a bye-word for sumptuous feeding.

• The commentator of Puraunanuru makes out that he supplied the rival armies at Kurukshetra with food. • Silappadikaram also records this legend.

• The poet Mamulanar records in Aham (233) that the king gave a memorial offering to the spirits at the anniversary of the Mahabharata war, in which the heroes from whom he traced his descent, had died.

• Udiyanjera I’s royal kitchen was at Kulumur (Ptolemy’s Kourellour) which may have been the original capital of the Cheras.

• He was married to Nallini, the daughter of Veliyan Venman, later known as Porvaikko-Perunarkilli Chola.

• Udiyanjeral was succeeded by his son Nedunjeral Adan (AD 155) who is said to have subjugated the ‘Kadambu’ clan and conquered seven kings.

• He is also praised as having set his bow on the slope of the Himalyas so that his power was known from Cape Comorin to the Himalayas.

• This is why he is known as Imayavaramban.

• The Yavanas are said to have been punished in a strange way.

• Their arms were pinioned behind their back and ghee was poured on their head.

• The poet of Patirrupattu was rewarded with the free gift of 500 villages in Umbark Kadu (elephant forest) and the revenue for 38 years from the southern province of the kingdom, by this king who ruled for 58 years.

• His capital is called Marandai and he fought a war with his contemporary Chola king in which both the monarch lost their lives and their queens performed sati. • Next in line was Pal-Yanai Selkelu-Kuttuvan or ‘Kuttuvan of many elephants’, a brother of Nedunjeral Adan.

• A fierce warrior who was the worshipper of Korraivai changed over to Brahmanism and accepted Nedumbaratayanar as his preceptor. • He later entered the title of Dharmaputra.

• Kuttavan was succeeded by his nephew, a son of Nedunjaral Adan known as Kalankaik Kanni Narmudijera (the Chera with the Kalangay festoon and the fibre crown) who is said to have defeated the Atiyamanas.

• The other son of Nedunjeral Adan was Senguttuvan, ‘the righteous Kuttuva’ (AD 180).

• He was the greatest early Chera king, also known as Pirakottiya Senguttuvan or red Chera, and was a contemporary of the poet Parnar, one of the most celebrated and longest-lived poets of the Sangam era.

• He is the hero of the fifth decade of the Patirrupattu and the real of Silappadikaram, the Tamil epic by the Chera Prince Ilango Adigal.

• He is said to have conquered vast regions from Cape Comorin in the South to the Himalayas in the north ‘where the gods dwell’.

• From the Himalayas, he is supposed to have got a stone to make an idol of the goddess Kannagi.

• Early in his reign, he is said to have subjugated the chieftain of Mogur known as Palaiyan as well as the chief of Kongar.

• He won a great naval victory and got the title ‘Kadal-Pirakkottiya’, i.e., who destroyed the efficacy of the sea as a refuge.

• It was because of this naval victory that Musiri became a safe port and in Guttuvan’s days, Yavana ships called in large numbers.

• The Mogur chief Nannan Palaiyan again rose in revolt with assistance from the Chola and Pandyan rulers, sometime late in his reign.

• Senguttuvan repressed this revolt and, as a trophy, he wore on his chest the crest of jewels of seven ruling princes.

• He is also said to have participated in the civil strife in the Chola kingdom, helped Parum-Killis or Nalam-Killi, who was his brother-in-law, and placed him on the throne by defeating the rival at Nerivayil.

• The insignia that his royal decrees bore consisted of the bow, the fish, and the tiger.

• According to Silappadikaram, this monarch was the founder of the famous Pattini cult related to the worship of goddess of chastity.

• This function was attended by king Gajabahu of Sri Lanka.

• Senguttuvan was a great patron of arts and letters and was particularly fond of Kuttu or dancing and the drama which he patronized liberally. This great Chera king reigned for 55 years.

• Senguttuvan was succeeded by his half-brother Perunjeral (or Perumcheral) Adan (AD 180) known to Patirrupattu as Adu-Kotpattu Charalatan.

• He was the contemporary of the great Chola king Karikal.

• We learnt from the poems Puram and Aham, that while fighting against the Cholas in the battle of Venni, Perunjeral Adan received a wound in the back and expiated the disgrace by starving himself to death on the battlefield with his swords in hand.

• The sixth decade in which this king is discussed was composed by Naccellaiyar and was married to this king.

• All together, seven monarch of the line of Udiyanjeral are mentioned in the Patirruppattu while there is evidence of another line of Cheras in the same Sangam literature.

• Establishment of this line was the result of the expansion of the Chera kingdom towards with the north and placement of a viceroy with headquarters at Tondi.

• Olval-Ko-Perum-Cheral Irumporai may be regarded as the first of their viceroys as he is said in the Colophone to have gone to reign at Karuvur.

• The kingdom seems to have started with Anduvan Ceral Irumporai who died along with the Chola king Prunarkilli in the battle of Por.

• Anduvan was succeeded by his son Selvakkadungo Vali Adan was succeeded by his son Perum Cheral Irumporai, a great warrior in whose phase Arisil Kilar has sung the eighth decade of Patirrupattu.

• Like his father, he is also said to have performed a Yajna Ali Adan.

• It is recorded that this king won a victory over the combined forces of the Cholas and Pandyas. • He was renowned for his overthrow of the stronghold of Tagadur, the seat of the power of the Adigaiman chieftains.

• He is also said to have subjugated a rebellious shepherd leader named Kaluvul and captured his fortress.

• The last king of this dynasty was the son of (or cousin of) Irumporai called Ilam-Cheral Irumporai, the hero of the ninth decade of Patirruppattu.

• He is said to have fought a battle against ‘the two big kings’ (Pandya and Chola).

• Another Chola Prince of the northern line deserving mention is Yanaik-Kat-Sey Mandaranjeral Irumporai, i.e., ‘Sey of the elephant look’ (AD 210).

• He was captured by his Pandya contemporary Nedunjeliyam, but regained his freedom in time to prevent his enemies at home from deposing him.

• Another important Chera king was Kanaikkalirumporai who punished Muvan, a chief, by having his teeth pulled out and fixed on the gate at Tondi as warning.

• This king was some time later captured by the Chola king Sen-Kanan and later released on request of the poet Poigaiyar but died without water in the Chola prison itself.

• The famous Chera port Musiri or Muziris was a great centre of indo-Roman trade.

The Cholas

• Col. Gerini connected the word Chola with Sanskrit kala (black) and with kola which in the early days designated the dark-coloured pre-Aryan population of southern India in general.

• Bhandarkar connected it with Sanskrit ‘Chora’ (thief) while it has been connected with ‘Colam’ which means millet in Tamil.

• Killi, Valavan and Sembiyan are the other names of the Cholas.

• The Cholas adopted the tiger as their crest while figured on their banner.

• The Chola dominion came to be known as Tondaimandalam or Cholamandalam in early medieval times with the capital at Uraiyur in Tiruchirapalli dist and subsequently at Kaveripattinam or Puhar founded by the Chola king Perunjeral Adan.

• In the middle of the 2nd Century BC, it seems that a Chola king called Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for nearly 50 years.

• Karikala, the foremost among the Sangam Cholas, was the son of Ilanjetcenni.

• Karikala means ‘the main man with the charred legs’.

• In later times, under Sanskritic influences, the name was explained as death (kala) to ‘kali’ or death to (‘enemies’) elephants.

• Karikala Chola was a very competent ruler and a great warrior.

• He fought a great battle at Venni in which the Pandyas and the Cheras both suffered crushing defeats. In this battle eleven minor chieftains were also uprooted.

• He again defeated a confederacy of nine minor chieftains in a battle at Vakaipparandalai.

• Karikala maintained a powerful navy, which he used to conquer Sri Lanka, from where he brought a large number of prisoners of war whom he used for building a huge embankment of 160 km to tame the Kaveri river.

• This was built with the labour of 12,000 slaves brought as captives from Sri Lanka.

• He made Puhar or Kaverippumapattinam an important port and an alternative capital of the Chola kingdom.

• The poet of Pattinappalai gives an account of the port of Puhar, state of industry and commerce under Karikala, who also promoted the reclamation and settlement of forest land, and added to the prosperity of the country by multiplying irrigation tanks.

• He is also credited with converting the Oliyar community from nomadism to a settled life.

• Two sons of Karikala ruled from two different capitals – Nalangilli from Puhar and Nedungilli from Uraiyur.

• The consequent civil war ended with the death of Nedungilli.

• After Nalangilli, Killivalavan came to the throne who captured Karur, the Chera capital.

• He seems to have died in a battle with the Pandyan forces. • Another renowned Chola king was Kopperunjolan who also ruled from Uraiyur.

• There was a serious quarrel between Kopperunjolan and his two sons and the king ultimately committed suicide, along with his friend and poet Andai.

• Perunarkilli was another Chola king who is the only one among the Sangam kings who performed the Rajasuya sacrifice attended by Chera Mari Venko and Pandya Ugra Peruvaludi.

• Koccenganam come next as Chola king. He is generally known for his religious zeal.

• Another Chola king was Ilanjetcenni who captured two fortresses (Seruppali and Pamulur) from the Cheras.

• Senganan, the Chola king famed in legend for his devotion to Siva, figures as the victor in battle of Por against the Chera Kanaikkal Irumporai.

• The Chera king was imprisoned and later released.

• Senganan Chola is said to have built 70 fine temples of Siva.

• With the rise of Pallavas, the Cholas became only a marginal force in South Indian history.

The Pandyas

• The Maduraikkanji refers to Nediyon or Vadimbalamba Ninravan as the first Pandya king.

• He is credited with bringing the Pahruli river into existence and organizing the worship of the sea.

• The same text mentions Pasalai Mudukudumi as the second ruler who is mentioned as the first king in the Velvikkudi grant.

• Palsalai Mudukudumi or Mudukudumi Peruvaludi is praised by three poets in five short poems.

• A description of the way he treated conquered territory, ploughing it with white-mouthed ass and refers to the many big sacrifices he performed, hence the title Palsalai meaning ‘of the many (sacrificial) halls’.

• The third ruler mentioned in Maduraikkanji was one Nedunjelian, distinguished by the title Ariyappadaikadanda meaning “he who won a victory against an Aryan army”.

• A short poem (Puram 183) ascribed to him, puts learning above birth and caste.

• He is said to have died of broken heart when the innocence of Kovalan was proved to him by Kannagi. This story is the main theme of the epic Silappadikaram.

• His viceroy at Korkai and perhaps his son and successor was Seliyan, called Verri Verceliyan or Ilanjelian, who wrecked terrible vengeance on the goldsmiths by sacrificing a thousand of them in one day to appease the great goddess who had been Kannagi.

• The only other figure that stands out from the rest, the victor of Talaiyalanganam, was later than the rulers mentioned in the silappadikaram and is known as Nedunjelian (different from Nedunjelian Ariyappadaikadanda).

• He came to the throne as a youth and at the very beginning of his reign he had to face a hostile combination of his two neighbouring monarchs aided by five minor chiefs at a place called Palaiyalanganam.

• In this campaign, Mandaram Cheral Irumporai, the son of the Chera king of the elephant look was captured.

• He is said to have performed a Vedic sacrifice.

• Ilvandikaippallittunjiya Nanmaran have pilloried in song for his liberality.

• Another king Ugrapperuvaludi subdued the chieftain of Kanapper.

• Himself a poet, he is said to have caused the Ahananuru to be made.

• Bhutappandiyan took Ollaiyur and his queen is well known by her song on the occasion of her sati.

• Under the Pandyas their capital Madurai and the Pandyan poet Korkai were great centers of trade and commerce.

• The Pandyan dominion was very wealthy and prosperous on account of the brisk indo-Roman trade.

• The Pandyan kings sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus and Trojan. The Sangam Government

• Clues in the texts points point more or less to a chiefdom level society with three categories of political powers:

• Kilar (village headman), velar (hill chiefs) and Ventar (lowl and chiefs).

• An Ur-Kilar of the pristine type was a clan based headman with kinship ties with his people.

• Velir were the hill chiefs who sometimes subjugated the neighbouring Ur-Kilar for predatory exaction, but were confined to their respective hills.

• The Ventars were the biggest chiefs who held control over larger areas through the subordination of the Kilar who fought for and shared the booty with them.

• The Chera, Chola and Pandya, constituting the Muventar (three crowned kings), owed their superiority to controlling the rice-producing plains and the transmarine trade set them apart from the less fortunate chiefs called Vels, Velars or Kurunilaimannar.

• The kings in the Sangam texts are known by terms like Kon, Ko, Mannan, Vendan, Korravan or Iraivan, etc.

• Ko is shortened form of Kon which means cowherd and it is also used as a general term for ‘God’.

• Courts were known as Avai (a corrupt form of Sabha), Arasavai, Olakkam or Irukkai.

• The crowned kings acquired many titles. • The Cheras were known by Vanavar (celestials), Villavar (hunters and bowmen), Kudavar, Kuttuvar (westerners), Poraiyar, Malaiyar (rulers of mountain land), Puliyar (rulers of Puli Nadu), etc.

• The Cholas were known as Sennis (leaders), Sembiyam (descendants of Sibi), Valavan (rulers of the fertile land), Killi (the chief) etc.

• The Pandyas were known as Minavar (fisherman), Kavuriya (related to the Kauravas), Panchavar (related to the Pandavas), Tennar (Southerners), Sliyar (of the fertile land), Marar (Southerners), Valudi etc.

• The term Vendan was used only for the three supreme kings and rest were lesser kings who did not wear a regular crown. • The place of the king and the place of the god were both called Koyil (the adobe of Ko).

• Arasan, a general term referring to a king was Tamilized form of Rajan.

• The king’s birthday is celebrated every year and the day was called Perunal (the great day).

• The royal emblem (viz. the tiger of the Chola, the bow of the Chera and the carp of the Pandya) was inscribed on the outer gate of the palace.

• The eldest son of the reigning king generally succeeded to the throne by right and this was known as Murai Mudal Kattil. • The crown Prince was known as Komahan while the younger ones were known as Ilango, Ilanjeliyan, Ilanjeral etc.

• The right of succession was called Tayam (a general term for securing a property).

• The coronation ceremony was known as Arasu Kattil Erudal or Mudi Suttu Vila.

• The king’s power was restricted by five councils which were known as the ‘five great councils’, also known as Aimperunkulu.

• The ‘group of five’ was a recognized body of people, composed of five divisions and constituting a council.

• These five consisted of:

1. ministers (armaichchar)

2. priests (purohitar)

3. army chiefs (senapatiyar)

4. envoys or ambassadors (dutar)

5. Spies (orrar).

• There was another institution called Enperayam which consisted of:

1. karanattiyalavar (accountants)

2. karumakarar (executive officials)

3. kanakasurram (treasury officials)

4. kadaikappalar (palace guards)

5. nagaramandar (elderly persons in the city)

6. padaittalaivar (chiefs of the infantry)

7. yanai virar (chiefs of the elephantry)

8. ivuli maravar (chiefs of the cavalry) •

The kings bestowed titles and honours on their subordinates in recognition of their performance.

• These honour were called Marayam and were of three categories viz. Etti (conferred on leading merchants, the Vanigars), Kavidi (conferred on personal attendants who got tax-free holdings), and Enadi (to be conferred on distinguished soldiers).

• Some other officials of the Sangam age included Mandirakkanakkar (scribes in-charge of royal correspondence and were also known as Mandira Olai), Arakkalattu Andanar (judicial advisers), Tandira Vinainar (executive officials doing odd clerical job), dharma Vinainar (discharging religious duties) and Ayakkanakkar (incharge of revenue collection).

Municipal and Village Administration :

• The village was the fundamental unit of administration and in connection with the management of village affairs we come across the terms: Manaram, Podiyil, Ambalam and Avai.

• The Manaram, the Podiyil and the Ambalam seem to be synonymous terms denoting a place where the village assembly (Avai) met to transact local business.

• The entire kingdom (big or small) was called Mandalam.

• Nachchinarkkiyar speaks of the four divisions of Tamilaham: Chera, Chola, Pandya and Tondai Mandalams.

• Below the Mandalam a major division was Nadu and we also hear of a unit called Kurram.

• According to V.R.R. Dikishitar, Nadu was a subdivision of Kurram and According to U.V.S. Iyer, Kurram was the subdivision of Nadu.

• The Ur was a town which variously described as a big village (Perur), a small village (Sirur) or an old village (Mudur).

• Cheri was the suburb of a town or village, while Pakkam was a neighbouring area.

• Salai was the trunk road and Teru the street in a town.

• Pattinam was a term for a coastal town and Puhar was a general term for harbour area.

• Kaverippumpattinam was the Pattinam par excellence of Tamilaham and was generally known as Pattinam only.

• Many towns have been mentioned in the texts but the major ones were Puhar (the famous Chola port and coastal capital), and uraiyur (the Chola inland capital also known as Koli and Varanam: it was a strongly defended city and its outskirts had burial grounds which were full of stones and hence ‘there were many obstacles to easy movement’.

• This description is strongly suggestive of the existence megalithic burials;

• The classical writers describe the place as noted for its cotton textiles-argaritic derived from Argaru or Uraiyur, Korkai (the Pandyan coastal capital, situated on Tamraparni river;

• It was reputed for its pearl fisheries where the Paradavar (fisherman) dived for pearls), Kaval (meaning salt pans, situated near Korkai;

• The Periplus talks of Colchi (Korkai) and its pearl fishiers worked by condemned criminals), Madurai (the Pandyan inland capital), Musiri (the Chera port) and Vanji or Karur (the Chera capital), Kanchi (also known as Kacci, Kaccimurram and Kacchippetu) the capital of Tondainadir, was another major city.

• Arikamedu was known to the Sangam literature as Virai (modern Viram Pattinam). It was one of the velar strongholds known to Sangam literature.

• Virai, described as a harbour was probably one of the coastal town like Sopatinam (modern Marakkanam), of the Oy clan of Velir.

• It was also the capital of the Velir chieftain Virai Veliyan Venman. Military Organization

• Defending fortresses (Inji, Purisai or Ahappa) well developed.

• High battlement walls – Nayil • Moat – Ahali or Kidangu

• Towered gates – Parvgal • The fortress of Kanapper had on additional fence of impenetrable forest.

• The sufferings of a beleaguered fortress from the subject of a poem by kovur kilar. • The traditional four fold army – Padai.

• Chariots were drawn by oxen or horses.

• Sword (Val) and shield (Kedaham or Kiduhu) were used in close combat, and the Tomaram is mentioned, evidently as a missiles to be thrown at the enemy from a distance.

• Body-armour (tol) made of tiger-skin for the protection of the body, and a cover of leather for the forearm were in use.

• Generally the war started with a well-known incident, viz., cattle lifting known as Atandombal in the Tolkappiam.

• The warriors wore the heroic anklet called Virakkalal on which the heroic deeds of the wearer were inscribed.

• In the army the van (Tusi) and the rear (Kulai) were distinguished besides the flanks (Pakkam).

• The war drum was worshipped as a Diety and crows and kites ate the bali offered.

• Before marching, the sword was taken into a procession and umbrella and drum were sent in advance as a token of march towards the battlefield. This was known as the ceremony of Nalkol.

• The slain soldiers were believed to attain the ‘heaven of heroes’ (Virasvarga) and were often honoured by the erection of memorial stones (Virakkal or Nadukal).

• An institution peculiar to the Sangam Tamils was the Kavalmaram

.• The kings – sovereigns as well as the feudatories – maintained with great care a tree in the courtyard of their palaces or near the Manaram or some central place in the town or at some convenient or well-protected spot.

• It was a totemic symbol and was believed that the tree had the power to protect the town; it was therefore, called ‘Tutelary tree’, a Kadimaram or Kavalmaram.

• Senguttuvan destroyed Palyan’s Vembu (Margosa) and tree and transported it in a huge vehicle drawn by elephants which were yoked to the carriage by strong ropes made of the twisted hair of the women of the enemy land.

• Kalangaikkanni Narmudi Cheral defeated the chieftain Nannan (the rules of Puli land) and cut down his Vahai (Albizzia Lebbek) tree. Revenue Administration

• Land tax was called Irai or Karai.

• Tributes paid by the feudatories and war booty collected from recently conquered foes were Irai;

• Tolls and customs duties were Ulugu or Sungam. • The duties to be paid to the king were generally known as Kadamai or Padu, and Paduvadu.

• Vari was also a generic term meaning income.

• Extra demands or forced gifts were called Iravu.

• A well known unit of territory yielding tax was a Variyam and the tax collecting authority was a Variyar.

• The rate of revenue was 1/6 of the produce. • Kural states that the king’s revenues were derived from:

1. Uru Porul (treasure-troves and escheats or land revenue according to K.A. Nilakanta Shastri).

2. Ulgu Porul (customs and tolls).

3. Onnartteru Porul (war-booty and tributes).

• Tamilakam had an extensive trade with Rome, Egypt, Myanmar (Burma), Kadaram (Malaya) and Java (Yava) and Ulgu was collected on all items.

• Other than Variyar (land tax collector) we hear of Alumbil Vel (assisted by Ayakkanakkar – revenue accountant), Kavidi (finance minister), Karanattiyalavar, Ayakkarar (toll collectors) etc, as tax collecting authorities. Weights and Measures

• Kanam was a measure of gold, very small in size.

• Pons referred to perhaps the same measure as Kanam.

• Kasu was a kind of coin of the size of a margosa fruit and of the shape of lotus bud.

• Kasu generally meant a small copper coin. • Silver was called Velli and rarely Ven Pon

 • Iron was also known as Pon.

· The grain from the field was measured in Ambanam.

· The Padirrupattu commentator equates Ambanam with a Marakkal.

· Nail was a much smaller measure equal to one Ulakku or two Alakkus.

· Nalikai was a measure of time.

· Usually, the grain measure was called nail and the time measure Nalikai.

· Tuni and Padakku were also cubic measures used for measuring horse gram and other grains.

· A smaller measure of a weight was a Todi which was an equivalent of a Polam.

· Kalanju was a unit of measuring gold.

· Popular unit of distance was a Kuppidu.

By

Shabeer Mon Asst.Professor, Kerala

· Their rituals were related to animism and other forms of anthropomorphic deity worship.

· The whole philosophy of reincarnation, hero worship, ancestor worship, sati worship etc. were related to death.

· Animism accounts for a good part of Tamil Sangam religion and comprised worship stones, water, stars and planets.

· A mere planted log of wood called Kandu was an object of worship for it was believed that a deity resided in that log of wood.

· Three strands of religion, clearly marked off from each other, are discernible during the Sangam period:

1. The indigenous Gods and systems of worship
2. The exotic Hindu Gods and systems of worship
3. The exotic non-Hindu religious faiths and functions.

· The hunters of the hill tracts worshipped murugan as the God of the hillock.
· Indra, God of Marudam, was worshipped by the agriculturists. There was a special festival instituted in puhar in honor of Indra.

· The fishermen and the people of the coastal regions worshipped Varuna, the God of the wide ocean.

· Korravai was the goddess of victory.

· Among the established Gods worshipped according to rituals, the three eyed god (Siva), Murugan, Tirumal, Balram and Indra seem to have been the more important.

· The temple was called Nagar, Koil, Kottam, Purai or Devalayam.

· The popularity and prevalence of the Brahmanical Velvi (Yagna) the Sraddha and panda to the dead, fasting etc. are well attested to by the Sangam literature.

· References are not lacking to the performance of Vedic sacrifices and the sacrificial posts, the Yupas, those of Pandya king Mudukudumi Peruvaludi being the best known.

· The word Yakacalai is used for Yagnasala.

· Vishnu sleeping on the coils of Ananta in Kanchipuram is mentioned in the Perumbanarruppadai.

· Shiva as Ardhanarisvara (half-man half-woman), his bull Nandi, his Ganas, in fact the whole gamut of Saivite legends are found together in the invocatory verse of the Purananuru.

· Siva, Balarama, Krishna, and Subrahmanya (better known as Murugan in Tamil) are mentioned together in one poem.

· The birth of Subramanya from Kali and his warlike achievements like the destruction of the Asura called Sura are favorite themes of the poets.

· The worship of this deity was attended by primitive dances known as Velanadal.

· The reference to the worship of the deity of the forest (Kaduraikadavul), often identified with Durga, may be another survival of a similar nature.

· Though Buddhism and Jainism must have found a footing in the land, there are few references to them in this literature.

· Ascetics wearing orange robes and carrying a Tridanda (Mukkol) are referred to.
· Tapas – austerities.

· There are references both to cremation and burial urns, and to judge only from the trend of these references, cremation and burial appear to have been alternative modes of disposal, and the Manimekalai furnishes evidence that both these and other methods of disposal survived together up to a relatively late age, say the sixth or seventh century AD.

· Some light on the funerary rites of the time is thrown by the references to the wife offering a Pindam (rice-ball) to her dead husband who was supposed to eat it at the instance of a Pulaiyan, before his pyre was kindled.

· Indra, Yama, Varuna and Soma (Kubera) are mentioned as the guardians of the four directions: the east, the South, the west and the north respectively.

· Gods on the basis of caste are also mentioned in the Silappadhikaram.

· Brahma (the four faced one), the thirty-three Devas and the eleven Ganas are also mentioned in Tirumuruarruopadai.

· Umai, Tirumal, Kalaimaga, Aylrani (wife of Indra) were some of the Goddesses worshipped.

· There seem to be parallel names in Tamil and in Sanskrit for the same gods – Murugan and Subrahmanya, Tirumal and Vishnu, Siva and Rudra.

· Among the temples in the Sangam age there is specific mention of quite a large number.

· The temple was called Nagar, in latter-day inscription’s we also read of Vinnagara, meaning the temple of ‘Vishnu’.

· Kottam, Koil, Nagar, Il or Griha meant place of residence; hence the expression Vishnugriha also meant ‘temple for Vishnu’.

· The name ‘Siva’ is rarely mentioned in the Sangam literature; but many of his attributes (namely, the three-eyed one, the one that destroyed the three aerial forts, he that holds the Trisula, he that is seated under the Baniyan tree) are given in many contexts.

· Siva, of course had his temple and Kari Kilar advising Pandyan Palyagasalai Mudukudumipperuvaludi, says that his royal umbrella should be lowered when he comes round the temple of the three-eyed one.

· The temple of Indra is mentioned in Silappadhikaram and in Manimekalai.

· The festival of Indra was held all pomp by Chola king in Puhar and Manimekalai calls it “the festival of the thousand-eyed one”. His temple was called Vajrakkottam, for Vajra is the divine weapon of Indra.

· The commencement of the festival of Indra (Vira Kalkol) was proclaimed by the beat of drums placed on elephant’s back.

· Tirumal as Tirumal and as Kannan is quite often mentioned and was worshipped and associated with Valigaon (Baladeva) and with Kaman.

· Synthesis of the non-Aryan Tamil and the Aryan Vedic deities had begun during this period.

· The culture of Sangam age, as a whole, is a synthesis of the Tamil and Aryan cultures.

By Shabir Mone, Asst.Professor, Kerala

· Tolkappiyam list of four categories (castes): Andanar (brahmanas), arasar (kings), vaisiyar (traders) and velalar (farmers).
· Tamilham consisted of five Tinais or physiographical divisions viz., Kurinji (hilly backwoods), Palai (parched zones), Mullai (Pastrol tract), Marutam (wet land), and Neital (littoral).

· The Kanavar, Kuravar and Vetar or Kadar were the inhabitants of the Kurinji-tinai and hunting and gathering their form of subsistence.

· Palai-tinai, the inhabitants were Kalavar, Eyinar and Maravar living by plunder and cattle lifting.

· In the Mullai-tinai the inhabitants were Ayar and Idaiyar subsisting on shifting agriculture and animal husbandry.

· Marutam-tinai were inhabited by Ulavar and Toluvar subsisting on plough agriculture.

· Neital-tinai was inhabited by Paratavar, Valavar and Minavar dependent on fishing and salt extraction.

· We get a total of eight social groups, viz.,
1. Kuravar (shifting agriculturists)
2. Vetar (hunters and food gatherers)
3. Idaiyar (cattle-keepers)
4. Kallar (plundering cattle lifting-people)
5. Ulavar (plough agriculturists)
6. Paratavar (fisherman)
7. Umnar (salt manufacturers)
8. Panar (wandering bards associated with all the tinails)

· On the basis of nature of production the agriculture zone (marutum) was called Menpulam and the rest, excluding Neital, were collectively called Vanpulam.

· Menpulam produced paddy and sugarcane and vanpulam grew pulses and dryland grains.

· Full-time craft specialists in the poems:

1. Pon-kolavan (goldsmith)

2. Kolavan(blacksmith)

3. Kuyavam or kalace-kovan (potter).

· The basis of production relations was kinship, signified by Ilaiyarum Mutiyarum Kilaiyutan Tuvunri, which is a stock expression in the poems referring to the labour processes in any Tinai.

· Illiyar means youngsters, Mutiyar means elders and Kilai means agnatic kin.

· The term Kilai stands as the Tamil counter part of Jati.

· Grain was husked in hollows made in the ground (Nila-ural), and converted into flakes (Aval).

· Appam (Apupa) or rice-cake soaked in milk was a luxury.

· Mural paintings – Ovaikkalai.

· Traveling troops of dances carried their Yal (lute); Padalai (one-sided drum).

· The dances of Viralis (professional dancing-girls) took place at night.

· Different kinds of lutes like Periyal, Palai-yal and Sengottiyal are described in detail in different contexts.

· There is a full length description of a Padini, a singing women of the Panar community (Viraliyar) in the Perunanuruppadai in which Karikal himself is described as a master of the seven notes of music.

· Woman enjoyed much freedom of movement in society and the number of women poets of the age is sufficient indication that they were not excluded from the best education then available.

· Sati (Tippaidal – falling into flames) was common.

· The worship of Kannagi or Pattini (‘the chaste lady’) was perhaps a very early institution and was but an extension of the worship of the goddess of chastity’.

· This become popular with Senaguttuvana’s worship of Kannagi and spread to distant places like Sri Lanka in the South and Malva in the north.

· The images of the Pattini Devi were preserved in Tamil temples till recently.

· The courtesans are mentioned at many places in the places in the texts, especially in Aham literature. They were called Parattaiyar or Kanigaiyar.

· Later works like the Tolkappiyam and the Kalaviyal say that the Aryans introduced the rituals and ceremonies of marriage (Karanam).

· These works also mention the spontaneous coming together of the sexes (Kamakkuttam), they distinguish secret marriage (Kalavu) from the open alliance contracted with the consent of parents (Karpu); last they refer to the eight forms of marriage known to the Sanskrit Dharmasashtra and show great ingenuity in fitting them into framework of the Tamil scheme.

· Though the Gandharva form of marriage is easily equated to Ualavu (later known as Yalor system), the other Aryan forms do not fall in line so easily.

By Shabir Mone, Asst Professor, Kerala

The road to dholavira goes through a dazzling white landscape of salty mud flats. It is close to noon in early April and the mercury is already past 100F. The desert monotones are interrupted only by the striking attire worn by the women of the nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoral tribes that still inhabit this land: Ahir, Rabari, Jat, Meghwal, and others. When I ask the driver of my hired car to stop for a photo, they receive me with curious stares, hoots, and giggles..

 The Rann of Kutch, an area about the size of Kuwait, almost entirely within Gujarat and along the border with Pakistan. Once an extension of the Arabian Sea, the Rann (“salt marsh”) has been closed off by centuries of silting. During the monsoons, parts of the Rann fill up with seasonal brackish water, enough for many locals to even harvest shrimp in it. Some abandon their boats on the drying mudflats, presenting a surreal scene for the dry season visitor. Heat mirages abound. Settlement is limited to a few “island” plateaus, one of which, Khadir, hosts the remains of the ancient city of Dholavira, discovered in 1967 and excavated only since 1989. 

Entering Khadir, we pass a village and find the only tourist bungalow in town. It hasn’t seen a visitor in three days; I check in and head over to the ruins. I’ve planned this for months; even the hottest hour of the day cannot temper my excitement for the ruins of this 5,000 year-old metropolis of the Indus Valley Civilization. While hundreds of sites have been identified in Gujarat alone, this is among the five biggest known to us in the entire subcontinent, alongside Harappa, Mohanjo-daro, and Ganeriwala in Pakistan, and Rakhigarhi in India. 

At the site office, a caretaker and his friend are playing cards on a charpoy. They offer me a chair and a glass of water, cooled in an earthen surahi. On a wall are the mysterious inscriptions from the famous signboard of Dholavira, painted above contemporary motifs to suggest a continuity of sorts. I learn from the caretaker that the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) still excavates each winter, alongside researchers from overseas. Hundreds from the local village are then employed on site. He says he has learned directly from the experts and offers to be my guide. I readily agree but hope that as part of the deal, he will overlook the “Photography Prohibited” injunction I had noticed earlier—a perfectly exasperating habit of the ASI—else I would have to attempt a bribe. I am relieved when the caretaker does not press the issue.

*** 

To the casual visitor, the most striking feature of Dholavira is its water management system. One gets the sense that every drop of water had to be saved. About 25 of the city’s 250 acres are occupied by 16 rock cut reservoirs of various sizes. Linked by channels and dams, the reservoirs are quite spread out and must have added to the aesthetic appeal of this planned city. I wondered how much of the city’s energy went into this effort? What drew its citizens to this location in the first place?

Archaeologists have identified seven cultural stages in the city’s evolution, starting around 3000 BCE. The “golden age” was apparently the fourth stage, when most of its monumental structures—gateways, fortifications, reservoirs—were built, accompanied by a prolific output in pottery, seals with inscriptions, weights, beads, and items of gold, silver, copper, ivory, shell, faience, steatite, clay, and stone. Later stages saw rising levels of impoverishment and urban decay (and a brief revival), until it was finally abandoned around 1500 BCE. We can’t be sure why. But Dholavira did outlast other major centers of the Indus Valley Civilization. 

The city was enclosed by an outer wall. Three major sections of the city have been identified: the “citadel”, “middle town”, and “lower town”, in descending order of prosperity and civic amenities. To the south on higher ground stands the citadel, where the “royalty” had lived. Further north is the middle town and a lower town to its east, both residential quarters for commoners, with streets and homes laid out on a grid-like plan. The caretaker points out portable wastewater pots (sullage jars) outside many houses, similar to the large earthenmatkas of today. Pottery shards lie scattered on the ground. I pick up a broken stone bangle. Someone probably wore these 4000 years ago! 

The imposing citadel, fortified with layers of walls, gates, and towers, has a “castle” atop with concealed passageways, stairs, and chambers, many supported by chiseled pillars of finely polished limestone. What dramas unfolded within these walls? What fears and hopes were expressed here? Or myths, anxieties, humor, repressions, prejudices? Unless the Harappan “script” is deciphered, much of what we say is speculation. What we can be sure of is Dholavira’s water harvesting acumen, plainly evident in the citadel’s intricate network of storm water drains, with slopes, steps, cascades, manholes, paved flooring and capstones. A tall man could walk through the large arterial drains that fed a reservoir on the citadel. The caretaker leads me to a deep well, once fitted with ropes and buckets. Water drawn from it cascaded down rock-cut channels to feed showers in a royal bathroom. Who were the people who occupied this privileged spot? What social organization supported them? 

Between the citadel and middle town is an open field, with stepped stands on all four sides. It might have hosted a market, royal or religious ceremonies, sports, executions, performances, or festivals. Though there is no evidence of competitive sports, some Indian historians prefer to believe so and have accordingly dubbed the field a “stadium”. Overlooking this field was the citadel’s north gate with the famous three-meter wide signboard of ten mysterious symbols, which must have been legible from across the field. For all we know, it might say: Long Live the King or Conserve Water! With the region’s water resources clearly not ideal for agriculture, what economic activity drove the city’s fortunes? Scholars have suggested that Dholavira, with its coastal location may have been a regional hub of maritime trade and commerce (back then the Rann was a navigable channel to the Arabian Sea). To the modern visitor, Dholavira could well be a symbol of an epic struggle against the elements, where a whole city strived to wrestle an order out of its hostile environment. All that for what? The stones aren’t talking just yet.

By Shabeer Mon, Asst Professor, Kerala

Burzahom was the first Neolithic site to be discovered in Kashmir. It is located on a ‘Karewa’ between the banks of the Dal Lake and the Zabarvan hills, about 5 km from the famous Mughal garden of Shalimar. After the discovery and excavation of Burzahom, other Neolithic sites were discovered in Kashmir at places such as Begagund, Brah, Gofkral, Hariparigom, Jayadevi-udar, Olichibag, Pampur, Panzogom, Sombur, Thajiwor and Waztal, all located on karewas mainly in the south-east parts of the Kashmir valley.

Burzahom translates as ‘place [hom] of  birch [burza]‘ in Kashmiri. Burnt birch found in the excavations showed that  birch trees must have been common in the area in the Stone Age. Plentiful food from the forests on the Himalayan foothills, an abundant water supply from the lake, and a raised location protected from seasonal inundation ensured that the Burzahom plateau remained continuously settled from the New Stone Age to the Early Historical period.

Neolithic [New Stone Age] Phase I c.3000 B.C.

The earliest Neolithic homes at Burzahom were pits dug below ground level using stone tools. The sides of the pits were plastered with mud. These pits must have provided the early Neolithic people of Burzahom protection from the elements during bitter winters in Kashmir .The pits were usually round or oval, and narrow at the top and wide at the base. Holes discovered around the pits were probably used to fix wooden poles to give support to roofs made out of tree branches. Some of the deeper pits had a few steps leading down while the pit-dwellers people would have stepped down into the shallower ones.

The early Neolithic people of Burzahom made simple gray or reddish-brown hand-made pots in different shapes and sizes.  They also made polished stone tools and tools out of animal bones and antlers. The bone tools included harpoons for fishing, needles for sewing, and arrow-heads, spear-heads and daggers for hunting. Ash, charcoal and pieces of pottery were found in the pits. Some of the pits had stone or clay ovens and a grinding-stone was found in one pit. The early phase I of the Neolithic at Burzahom did not yield any burial sites. 

Neolithic Phase II c.2000 B.C.

During this phase, the Neolithic people of Burzahom started to live in mud huts at ground level. The pits were filled up and plastered with mud and sometimes covered with a thin coat of red ochre to serve as a floor. Stone and bone tools with a better finish compared to the earlier ones were discovered. The pottery was generally hand-made shiny black pottery. A red wheel-made pot filled with 950 beautiful beads made of semi-precious stones was discovered at the site.

Many burials of this phase were discovered, usually under house floors or in the compounds. Red ochre was smeared on the bodies before burial. Apart from human burials, animals were sometimes buried along with humans or in separate graves. The buried animals included wild animals like wolves, ibex and antlered deer and domesticated animals like dogs, sheep and goats.

Scientists have identified seeds of wild and cultivated types of wheat, barley and lentils of different kinds found at Neolithic levels of Burzahom.

Megalithic Phase III

The Megalithic period is associated with the setting up of menhirs or single standing stones, which can still be seen in Burzahom. The pottery was fine-to-medium red-ware mostly made on the potter’s wheel. Bone and stone tools were gradually discarded in favor of copper tools. Rubble structures of this Period have also been found.

Early Historical Phase IV

Mud-brick structures at the site reveal that the site was occupied up to the early historical period. The pottery was fine-to-medium red-ware mostly made on the potter’s wheel. Iron objects have been found belonging to this period.

Trepanation as a surgical operation was widely established in many ancient societies of the Americas, Europe, Africa and Asia – from Peru in antiquity to Harappa (c. 4300 BC)  in the Indus Valley, the Bronze Age of Jericho in Palestine (c. 4000 B.C) and Europe around 5000 B.C.  Scientists have commented on the similarity in the techniques of prehistoric trepanation, ostensibly due to the transfer of surgical skills from one society to another and the implication this transfer would have on the possibility of the prehistoric movements of people across continents. The skull of the Burzahom woman may be one more thread in the riddle of remarkably similar techniques of trepanation used by prehistoric societies separated by vast expanses of space and time.
Source Courtesy:http://www.kashmirnetwork.com/today/burzahom.html

Duggirala Gopalakrishnayya was one of the famous leaders in the non-violent Indian Freedom Movement. He attracted millions of Andhra people to the movement through his poetry and speeches.

He was born in Penuganchiprolu village in Krishna district on June 2, 1889 into a Brahmin family. His father was Kodandaraamaiah and mother was Seethamma. He studied in high schools in Guntur  and Bapatla cities. While at school, even at that young age, he founded “Jaateeya Naatyamandali (National Dance Group)” to help develop arts such as drama and music.

He went to England for higher studies. After graduating with MA degree from Edinburgh University, he worked with Ananda Kumara swamy for some time and translated Nandikeswara’s Abhinaya darpanamu from Sanskrit into English entitled, “The Mirror of Gesture,” published by Cambridge-Harvard University Press in 1917.

After a brief tenure as a lecturer at Rajamandry Training College and Bandaru National College, he jumped headlong into freedom struggle. In 1919, the British government unified Cheerala and Perala municipalities into one municipality. Gopalakrishnayya called for a non-cooperation movement against this action. This movement became one of the most important milestones in the Andhra freedom struggle. He traveled extensively in Andhra, after the Nagpur Congress Convention in 1920, to propagate the aims of the meeting. He was jailed for one year when he disobeyed a ban on speeches in Barampuram.

He was very much interested in Telugu folk-arts and toiled for the uplift of these arts. Telugu folk arts include toalubommalaata (puppet show), jamukulakatha, burrakatha, veedhinaatakaalu, saamu gaaradeelu, golla kalaapam, butta bommalu, keelu gurraalu, vaalakaalu, gosangi, guravayyalu, saradhakatha, kinnerakatha, kommu boora, jodu maddela, palle suddulu, toorpu bhagotham, chuttukaamudu, pitchikuntlavaalla katha, sadhana soorulu, palanati veera vidyavanthulu, etc. He founded a journal entitled, “saadhana.” He strove for the spread of libraries in Andhra in a movement called grandhalayodyamamu (library movement).

He was very spiritualistic and a Rama worshipper. He formed a volunteer group called ‘Ramadandu,” which was a well-organized, patriotic and spiritual organization. He was awarded the title “Andhra Rathna (Gem of Andhra)’ by the people in 1921 at a meeting in Guntur.

Three episodes during the Civil Disobedience Movement in Andhra attracted the attention of the whole country. The first and major one was the Chirala-Perala episode led by Duggirala Gopalakrishnayya. He served for some time in the Government College at Rajahmundry and the National College at Machilipatnam. He was, however, not satisfied with the kind of education that was imparted there. Moreover, after attending the Calcutta Congress in 1920, he was attracted to the program of Non-co-operation and resolved to dedicate his life to the achievement of Swaraj. For this purpose he trained thousand disciplined band of warriors and gave them the name `Ramadandu’. He put them to test at the All-India Congress Session in Vijayawada to maintain peace and order and the All-India leaders were immensely pleased with the kind of work they did.

It was an unprecedented step in the history of the country. For eleven months people lived there in thatched huts braving the severity of weather. Gopalakrishnayya and his Ramadandu kept up the morale of the people. Their aim was to establish a parallel government and demonstrate to the outside world how Swarajya, as conceived by him, would be like. He constituted an Assembly comprising members elected from each caste and established an arbitration court. Sankirtans and Bhajans kept up the morale of the people. He, however, faced financial difficulties and he went to Berhampore in 1921, when the Andhra Conference was in session to collect some money. There he was prohibited to address the public meetings but he defied the orders. He was arrested and sentenced to one year’s imprisonment and sent to Trichinapally. There was no other person who could occupy his place. The Government also took repressive measures against those who built sheds on government lands. People returned to their homes in the municipality at the end of eleven months and reconciled themselves to its constitution. Though the movement failed, the qualities of courage and fearlessness they developed stood them in good stead in the subsequent stages of the freedom movement. Sri Gopala Krishnayya died at the age of 40 in 1928.

For instance, ‘Pitri, Sanskrit for Father, and ‘Pater’, Latin for Father sound similar, and so does ‘Matri’ and ‘Mater’ for Mother. 

Max Mueller therefore concluded that the ancestors of the Indians, the Greeks, the Romans, the English and some other peoples must have originally resided at a common place. 

The Austro-Hungarian theory, propounded by Di Giles and Prof. Macdonell, considers the banks of the Danube River (south-east Europe) to have been the original home of the Aryans. 

Putting forward the Sapta-Sindhu theory, many Indian historians, including Dr Sampurnanand and Avinash Chandra Dass, point out that the modern Punjab and Sindh region (or Sapta-Sindhu) was where the Aryans originated. The view is based on a study of geographical features mentioned in the hymns of the Rigveda. 

From the description of certain natural phenomena, such as long evenings, days and nights of six months’ duration, etc., in the Rigveda, Lokmanya Tilak came to the conclusion that the original home of the Aryans was in the regions near the North Pole. 

He reached this view after a close study of several ancient books such as the Zend Avesta apart from the Rigveda. 

Swami Dayananda wrote in the Satyartha Prakash that the original home of the Aryans was Tibet. As their population grew they could not continue to stay in Tibet and thus migrated towards India. His view is support by F.E. Pargiter. 

Large-scale migration or an invasion. Again, there is nothing Aryan’ about any particular type of pottery, nor is there any ethnic or racial significance. 

As regards the earlier belief (supported by Rigveda hymns calling upon Indra to destroy the dwellers of forts) that the Aryans destroyed the Harappans by razing to ground their cities and towns, there is no archaeological evidence to prove it. 

There is no evidence to show that the Harappan civilization was destroyed by an alien invasion. Likewise, if the PGW had been a product of Aryan craftsmanship, it should have been found in the areas of Bahawalpur and Punjab, the supposed route of the so-called Aryan invaders. 

However, these pottery types are found in a region far from there in Haryana, the upper Ganga basin and in eastern Rajasthan. 

Also, there is no basis to believe that there exists a time gap leading to cultural discontinuity between the late-Harappan and the post-Harappan Chalcolithic periods. 

Recent excavations at Bhagwanpura and Dadheri in Haryana and Manda (Jammu) have shown that the late Harappan and the PGW were found together without any break. So, on the basis of archaeological evidence, invasion is not an acceptable theory. 

After 1750 BC the urban features of the Harappan civilization, its towns and cities along with its scales, weights and measures, the things related to trade and urbanization-all these vanished.

There was no change in the rural structure of the earlier period, it continued into the second and the first millennium BC. 

The differences observed in the archaeological find, in the pottery, metal objects and other items are possibly due to, and may be a representation of, the variations in Indian Chalcolithic cultures.

Thus, the archaeological evidences relating to the period between the second and first millennium BC have helped in modifying the earlier views on the Vedic “Aryans”: (i) there is no archaeological evidence supporting the view that there was large scale migration from West Asia into the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BC; (ii) there is no archaeo­logical proof that the Aryans destroyed the Harappan civilization and laid the foundation of a new Indian civilization. 

In fact, even though the Rigveda refers repeatedly to wars between different groups, these fights are not evidenced in archaeological finds. 

What is most likely to have happened is as follows. With the decline of the cities of the Indus Civilization and the administrative system, the emphasis must have moved over to rural settlements. It was probably in this period-mid-second millen­nium BC-which the Indo-Aryan speakers entered the north-west of India from the Indo-Iranian border­lands through the passes in the mountains. But they came in small groups, not in a large scale migration. Such small-scale migrations would not have been noticeably disruptive, and might have followed earlier pastoral routes. The Avesta does refer to repeated migrations from lands in Iran to the Indus region in search of pastureland.

By

Shabeer

Gurajada Venkata Appa Rao panthulu garu [1862-1915] is perhaps the most celebrated modern Telugu writer. There may be controversies and strong sectarian feelings surrounding other great writers like Sree Sree and Viswanatha. But Gurajada is universally respected for heralding the modern era. His epochal writings had far reaching influence and encompassed many aspects of modern Telugu Literature. Sree Sree and several other major figures had almost idolized him. His works have retained their freshness even a century after they were originally written. His Kanyasulkam is billed as one of the greatest works in world literature. Many a literary critic said repeatedly that if one were to collect a list of one hundred indispensable books from all the languages of the world combined, Kanyasulkam would figure prominently in that list. Gurajada was a scholar of classical works as well as European literature. He was one of the earliest to part ways with classical traditions in poetry, drama, and prose. His close associates such as Gidugu Rama Murthy and his own initiatives were primarily responsible for what is now known as “Vyavaharika Bhasha Vadam” In more ways than one, his 1910 work Mutyala Saralu (along with Kattamanchi Ramalinga Reddi’s musalamma maraNam, 1898 ) form the earliest works heralding a break with traditional poetry. If one must anoint someone for the title of “father of modern Telugu poetry,” it would be Gurajada. He was the first to write modern short stories in Telugu. He was also the first to write a “fully modern” drama. His works are among the most exceptional examples of a masterly blend of literary brilliance and avowed social purpose.

Gurajada lived most of his life in and around Vijayanagaram in what was then called as Kalinga Rajyam . He and his father before him were both employed by the princely state of Vijayanagaram. Gurajada enjoyed a close relationship with the ruling family during his adult life. Two dates of birth (according to western calendar) have been calculated based on Gurajada’s horoscope, viz., Nov.30, 1861 and Sept. 21, 1862. Apparently, his descendants prefer the second date. Gurajada was born at his maternal uncle’s home in Rayavaram village near Yelamanchili (Visakhapatnam Dt.). His parents were Venkata Rama Dasu and Kausalyamma. He had a younger brother by name Syamala Rao. Gurajada’s ancestors seem to have moved to Kalinga region from Gurajala village in Krishna Dt. (hence the family name?) Venkata Rama Dasu worked as a Peshkar, Revenue Supervisor, and Khiledar in the Vijayanagara Samsthanam. He was well educated and had a good command in Sanskrit. He died in an accident while crossing a small river Utagedda near Vijayanagaram. 

Gurajada had his initial schooling (till age 10) in Cheepurupalli while his father was working there. His remaining schooling was done at Vijayanagaram after his father passed away. During that time, he lived in relative poverty and maintained himself as a varalabbayi. He was generously taken care of by the then M.R. College Principal, C. Chandrasekhara Sastri who provided him free lodging and boarding. He completed his matriculation in 1882 and obtained F.A. in 1884. Soon after, he was employed as a teacher in M.R. High School in 1884 with a salary of Rs.25. He was married to Appala Narasamma in 1885. In the mean time, he continued his studies and graduated with B.A. (Philosophy major and Sanskrit minor) in 1886. For some period during 1886, he worked as Head Clerk in the Deputy Collector’s office. On Vijayadasami day, 1887, he joined as a Lecturer (Level IV) in M.R. College with a salary of Rs.100. Around the same time; he was introduced to Maharaja Ananda Gajapati (1850-1897). This prince had a significant role in encouraging the arts and education in these parts of the country. Gurajada gradually developed a cordial relationship with the prince. This association led to his involvement with the princely family for a long time. In 1887, Gurajada spoke at a Congress Party meeting in Vijayaanagaram. His daughter  Lakshmi narasamma was born in 1887. He was simultaneously involved in social work and became a member of the Voluntary Service Corps in Visakhapatnam in 1888. He was elected vice-president of the Ananda Gajapati Debating club in 1889. His son Venkata Ramadasu was born in 1890. In 1891 he was promoted to Lecturer (Level III) with a salary of Rs.125. He taught the F.A. and B.A. classes several subjects including English Grammar, Sanskrit Literature, Translation, Greek & Roman Histories. His younger brother Shyamala Rao died in 1892 while studying at Madras Law College. 

In the previous ten years, Gurajada Appa Rao (along with brother Shyamala Rao) had been writing several English poems. His Sarangadhara, published in “Indian Leisure Hour” was well received. The editor of the Calcutta based “Rees and Riot” Sambhu Chandra Mukherji read it and re-published it in his magazine. He encouraged Gurajada in many ways. While praising Gurajada’s talent, he actually encouraged him to write in Telugu. He told Gurajada that however talented he might become in English, it is still a foreign tongue and that he would scale greater heights if he chose to compose in Telugu. Gurajada too was gradually coming to this conclusion. During this period, it is also said that Gurajada was also in correspondence with a British Journalist and author. Gundukurti Venkata Ramanayya, editor of the “Indian Leisure Hour” encouraged Gurajada greatly during the same period. In 1891, Gurajada was appointed to the post of Epigraphist (Samsthana Sasana Parisodhaka) to the Maharaja of Vijayanagaram. 

In 1892, Gurajada’s celebrated drama “Kanyasulkam” was staged for the first time. It became an instant hit. It was the first Telugu drama expressly written in spoken dialect. Prior to that, there were dramas that employed spoken dialect in a few parts of the drama. Vedam Venkata Raya Sastry wrote a very popular drama “Prathaparudreeyam,” where he followed the Sanskrit example in allowing the so-called “lower” characters to use spoken dialect while the so-called “upper” characters used chaste literary dialect. Veeresalingam Panthulu wrote some dramas, notably “Brahma Vivaham,” with some spoken dialect content. This drama was written more as an accessory to his crusade against social evils than for literary enjoyment. The Kanyasulkam was the first to achieve both the aims and an unparalleled achievement it was! The success of Kanyasulkam encouraged Gurajada to open up and seek out others with similar views. He came in contact with several contemporary luminaries. The rumbling sounds of movement to support spoken dialect as a platform for literary activity were gathering around that time. Gurajada’s childhood friend and classmate in Chipurupalli, Gidugu Rama Murthy (1863-1940) was the leading light of this school of thought. The highly successful staging of Kanyasulkam gave this movement a big boost. It conclusively showed that works that have undisputed literary value and are very popular could be composed in spoken dialects. Even the opponents of the spoken dialect movement such as Kaseebhatla Brahmayya Sastry had to concede that the Kanyasulkam has a significant literary merit. The success made Gurajada a sort of celebrity. He was being sought after for literary events and for reviewing other literary works. 

In 1896, Gurajada tried to establish a magazine by name “Prakasika.” It is not known whether this magazine was ever published. In 1897, Kanyasulkam was published (by Vavilla Ramasastrulu & Sons, Madras) and was dedicated to Maharaja Ananda Gajapati. In the same year, the prince died following a brief illness without leaving a successor. After this, Gurajada was appointed as personal secretary and advisor to the Maharani of Reeva (Appala kondamamba -sister of Anada Gajapati). Gurajada had his second daughter (third child) Puligedda Kondayyamma in 1902. In 1903, a court case was filed challenging the right of Ananda Gajapati’s mother (Alaka Rajeswari) to adopt an heir to the throne of the principality. Gurajada was put in charge of taking care of all the legal proceedings. The case dragged on for many years and ended in an out of court settlement in 1913. 

In 1905, Gurajada’s mother passed away. In 1906, his close friend P.T. Srinivasa Iyyangar, principal of Mrs. A.V.N. College, Visakhapatnam started an association to promote curriculum reform in high schools. One of the chief aims was to introduce spoken dialects. Along with him, J.A. Yates (1874-1951) -a British civil servant, Gidugu and Gurajada were the principal members. Another friend S. Srinivasa Iyengar (1874-1941) also gave a lot of support and encouragement. Incidentally, this Srinivasa Iyengar was a well-known lawyer and was the President of AICC (All India Congress Committee) annual session at Guahati in 1926. Gurajada attended the 1908 Congress session at Madras. Gurajada developed some health problems and took some time off to convalesce at the Nilagiri hills. While taking rest, he got around to preparing the second edition of Kanyasulkam and published it in 1909. This edition was completely revised and greatly expanded compared to the original version. It is this edition that made the drama a truly outstanding work of art. Each character developed a life of its own and they all came together in an unforgettable comedy. The next year, he participated in a community meal at Berhampur where people of various classes and castes shared the same food and ate together. Around this time, Gurajada started writing very prolifically and composed several poems, songs and short stories. These works are among the most famous in Telugu literature. 

In 1911, he was appointed to the Board of Studies by Madras University. The same year, Gurajada and his friends started the Andhra Sahithya Parishat to promote the use of spoken dialects. The next year, he was invited to attend the meeting of the Vangeeya Sahithya Parishat (Bengal Literary Association) at Calcutta. The same year, his second patron, Maharani of Reeva died. Gurajada took retirement in 1913 with a pension of Rs.140. Madras University honored him by making him a “Fellow.” His health started deteriorating slowly. He constructed a new house and moved into it in 1915. After a few months of illness, Gurajada passed away in 1915.

By

Praveen

● The script of Indus civilization was pictorial in which there were more than 600 picture-letters and 60 original letters.

● The excavations of Chanhudaro were carried out in 1925 under the leadership of Earnest M’ckay. This town had no fort.

● Naal, Daburkot, Rakhi Garhi, Banawali, Rangpur, Lothal, Des Morasi, Kulli, Rana Ghundai, Anjira, Gumla, Amri, Ghundai, Mundigak, Diplabaga, Sahar-i-Sokhta, Bampur and Queta etc. are famous historical sites where the remains of Indus civilization and pre Indus civilization have been excavated.

● Daburkot, Periano, Ghundai, Kulli, Mehi, Chanhudaro, Amri, Lohumjodaro, Alimurad, Ropar, Rangpur, Sutkegender are the prominent (spots) places of Indus Valley civilization.

● The excavations of Kalibangan, a historical place in Rajasthan began in 1961 under the direction of B. K. Thapar and B. B. Lal. From the lower layer of the excavation, the remains of pre Indus civilization and from the upper layer of the Indus civilization are discernible. The fortress and the city both were surrounded with walls.

● The excavations at Rangpur—an Indus site in Gujarat were carried out in 1953-54 under the leadership of Rangnath Rao. Forts of raw bricks, drainage, terracotta utensils, weights and slabs of stone have been found but the idol of mother Goddess (Matridevi) and coins have not been found.

● Lothal was situated at that time near the ocean. In excavations the remains of a dockyard have been found which testify to the trade relations of Indus people with western Asia.

● In the district of Kutchh in Gujarat state, 12 kms north-east of Adesar is situated Surkota which was explored and excavated in 1964 under the guidance of Jagatpati Joshi.

● In the excavation of Indus civilization, a very big building has been explored. It is 242 ft long and 112 ft broad. The walls are 5 ft thick.

● Some figurines on tables have been found in Indus civilization in the centre of which is a round shaped Sun and around it are the pictures of 6 gods arranged in a way that they appear as if they are the Sun beams. This testifies to the worship of Sun in the period.

● The proof of the existence of a Man-like being are 1 crore to 20 lacs years old.

● In the Indian population, there are four basic racial sub-differences. These are Negrito, Astro Australians, Kakeshisi and Mongoloids.

● In India, skeletons (human body in bones-kankal) have been found in Sarai Nahar Rai near Allahabad, Bataikhor and Lekhania. High in length, flat nose and broad mouth are their characteristics. These belong to Mesolithic age.

● The pre stone civilization came to be known in the region of river Sohan a subsidiary of Sindhu. Hence it is called Sohan civilization. The Vatikapoom in the form of (Gandasa) axe and Khandak were its main implements.

● In Harappan culture, the worship of Earth as goddess was in vogue. This is indicated by the idol of a woman with a plant growing out of her womb.

● Along with the Elephants, Rhinoceros, Buffalos, Lions and Deers, the picture of Yogi engraved on a seal (Muhar) suggests the worship of Shiva in Harappan civilization. This God had three heads and he sat with crossed legs.

● The Talismans obtained in large numbers indicate that the people of Harappan culture believed in witchcraft or the dead souls. These talismans were made of bronze and copper in the form of plate.

● In Harappan culture the weight (for measuring) were 16 or of its multiplied numbers.

● The dogs and cats were the domesticated animals and their foot prints confirm this fact.

● The remains of the horses have been found at Surkota. The existence of the horse is not known from the upper layer of Mohenjo-Daro excavation. The terracotta small figurines provide knowledge about it.

● The people of Lothal used rice in 1800 B.C.

● As Sindh was one of the oldest regions for cultivating cotton, the Greeks named it as Sedon.

● In Harappan culture, silver was obtained from Afghanistan, Iran, South India, Arabia and Baluchistan. Gold was imported from Afghanistan and Persia.

● The stone Lajward was brought from Badakshan, Feroza was brought from Iran. Jayumani was brought from Maharashtra, Moonga and Redstone were brought from Saurashtra and Western India and the precious greenstone (Panna) was brought from Central Asia.

● The Ahar culture (Rajasthan) belonged to the Copper age. The houses were built of stone and a mixture of lime and soil. Paddy was cultivated and Metal Work in Bronze was in vogue. All these were the characteristics of this culture which existed about 2000 B.C.

● The remains of Malwa stone and bronze culture have been found in Navdatoli where the houses were built of mud, bamboo and dry grass in a square and round shape. The terracotta utensils and agricultural products of wheat, oil seeds, pulses (Masur) and green and black gram are the characteristics of this culture.

● The Rishis (Sages) like Gritsamad, Vishwamitra, Bhardwaj, Atri and Vashishta composed the Suktas or the Vedic Mantras.

● The prominent female sages were Lopamudra, Ghosa, Shachi and Poulomi.

● Sama Veda is divided into three branches—(1) Kouthum, (2) Ranayaniya, (3) Jaminiya.

● Prominent among the Ayurvedacharyas were Acharya Ashwini Kumar, Dhanvantari, Banabhatt, Sushrut, Madhav, Jeevan and Lolimbaraja etc.

● Ayur Veda is an ‘Upaveda’ of Rig Veda, Dhanur Veda is ‘Upaveda’ of Yajur Veda, Gandharva Veda is the ‘Upaveda’ of Sam Veda and Shilpa Veda is the ‘Upaveda’ of Atharva Ved.

 ● Rig Veda has two Brahmans—(1) Aitereya, (2) Kaushitaki.

 ● Krishna Yajur Veda has the Brahman—Taitteriya and Shukla Yajur Veda has the Shatpath Brahman.

 ● The Brahmans of Sam Veda are Tandav, Panchvish, Sadvish and Chhandogya.

 ● The Aranyakas deal with life, death and other serious themes. These are written and studied in loneliness of the forests.

 ● Aitereya and Kaushitaki are the Aranyakas of Rig Veda. The author of Aitereya was Mahidas Aitereya.

 ● Taitteriya Aranyaka belongs to Krishna Yajur Veda.

 ● Sam Veda and Atharav Veda have no Aranyakas.

 ● Prominent among the Upanishads are Ish, Ken, Kath, Prashn, Mundak, Mandukya, Taitteriya, Aitereya, Chhandogya, Vrihadaranyak, Shwetashwara, Kaushitaki and Mahanarayana.

 ● During the Rigvedic period Nishk was an ornament for the neck; Karna shobhan was an ornament for the ear and Kumbh was the ornament for the head.

● In the Rigvedic age, the Aryans domesticated the cow, the buffalo, goat (ajaa), horse, elephant and camel etc.

 ● Bheeshaj was the person who treated the sick people.

 ● The Rigvedic Aryans worshipped the Sun as Savita, Mitra, Pooshan and Vishnu. Sun was called the ‘Eye of Gods’; and Agni the ‘Mouth of Gods’. Agni was considered to be the Purohit of the Aryans. They thought that the offering of the Yagna reaches to the Gods through Agni. Varun was worshipped as a spatial God.

● In Rig Veda, Usha, Sita, Prithvi, Aranyani, Ratri, Vak are worshipped as goddesses.

● Besides Rig Veda, the reference of Sita as the goddess of agriculture is made in Gomil Grihya Sutra and Paraskar Grihya Sutra.

● The ancient idols of Ganesh show his main weapons as Paash and Ankush.

● In the Rigvedic age the traders were called ‘Pani’. They stole away the cattle of the Aryans.

● Das’ or Dasyas were more hated than the ‘Pani’. They have been referred as black complexioned inauspicious and opposed to Yagnas. They were the worshippers of Phallus (Shishnadev).

● In the Rigvedic age, the cow was the backbone of economy. It was called ‘Aghanya’—not to be killed, war has been referred as Gavisthi, the guest as Mohan and the daughter as Duhiti. One Rik refers to the domestication of sheep.

● Vashishtha who replaced Vishwamitra as Purohit of King Sudas, has been mentioned as adopted son of Urvashi, and born of the ‘Virya’ of Mitra and Varun on an earthen pot.

● Ballabh and Tarukshadas were chieftains who lavishly donated to the Purohits and through their grace obtained respect and high place in the Aryan society.

● Savitri is referred in the famous Gayatri Mantra. In Rig Veda the maximum reference is made of Indra. After him Varuna  is referred to. In the earlier Rich as Varuna and Marutha have been mentioned as ‘Gan’. Twasta also was a Vedic God.

● Prajapati has been referred as the Adi Purush—the first human (male). The Gods were his children.

● In Rig Veda, the king has been mentioned as the Protector of the clan or the Gopta  Janasya. The reference to Sabha, Samiti, Gan, Vidath is made as the Tribal Councils.

● No bureaucracy developed in Rigvedic age. Yet the officer of Gochar land were called Vrajpati, the officer of the village was called Gramani. He was the commander. The chief of the family is referred as ‘Kulap’.

● The words like Vrat, Gan, Gram and Shardh have also been used for indicating the group of Soldiers.

● In Rig Veda  Jan is used 275 times, Vish is used 170 times. Sangram is the word which indicates war between the villages.

● The God of Vegetation. It was also an intoxicating drink and the method of its preparation is referred in the Rig Veda.

● The later Vedic literature was written during 1100 to 600 B.C. The painted grey ware—bowls and plates were used and the tools which they used were made of iron.

● The main crop of the later Vedic age was wheat and paddy instead of barley.

● In the later Vedic age, the Vidath were extinct but the Sabha and the Samiti existed.

● In this period, the King performed the rites of Rajsuya Yajna with a desire to obtain divine power, Ashwamedha Yajna to expand the empire and the Vajpeya Yajna for chariot racing with friends and relatives of his Gotra.

● The Gotra system began in the later Vedic age. The custom of marrying outside the Gotra also started.

● In the literature of later Vedic age, the first three Ashrams are mentioned—(1) Brahmcharya, (2) Grihastha, (3) Banprastha. The Sanyas Ashram is not mentioned.

● In later Vedic period the plant Som could not be obtained easily. As such other drinks were also used.

● Gold and Silver were mainly used for making ornaments and utensils. Other metals were used for making many other implements in the later Vedic era.

● In later Vedic period, the commercial classes (Traders) organized themselves in ‘Sangh’. The Aryans conducted sea trade. Nisk, Satman and Krishal were used as coins for trade purposes.

● In comparison to the religion of Rigvedic period, the later Vedic religion had become very complex. Purohits, Yagna and sacrifice were considered important. Many types of Yagnas were performed. 

● The Shatpath Brahman refers to the various steps in progress of cultivation—Jutai (ploughing), Buwai
(planting), Lawani (weaning), Mandai (cutting) are the various processes mentioned in it. 

● Sangam literature is compiled in 8 books. They are—(1) Narune, (2) Kuruntoge, (3) Aigunuru, (4) Padirupyuttu, (5) Paripadal, (6) Karlittorga, (7) Nedultoge, (8) Purnanuru. 

● In the Sangam age, the Tamil Grammar was written in a detailed book, ‘Tolakappiyam’. 

● With the songs of the musicians, the dancers known as Panar and Widelier used to dance. 

● Pedinekilkanku is a famous composition of Sangam literature. 

● Sangam is a Sanskrit word meaning a Congregation and a Council. 

● The main theme of the Sangam literature is ‘Romance’ (Shringar) and heroism (Veergatha). Shringar is called as ‘Aham’ and Veergatha has been called as ‘Puram’. 

● The first Sangam was organized at Madurai under the chairmanship of Rishi Agastya. 

● The second Sangam was organized at Kapatpuram again under the chairmanship of Rishi Agastya. 

● The third Sangam was organized at Madurai and it was chaired by ‘Nakkirar’. 

● Avey was the family of Sangam age which meant Sabha (assembly). 

● Panchvaram was the assembly of the advisors of the King of Sangam age. 

● Ur was the institution which looked after the city administration. 

● The excavation of Arikmedu, provide enough evidence to prove that once upon a time, the cantonments of the Roman traders resided there. 

● The teachers in the Sangam age were called as Kanakkaters. 

● The students in the Sangam age were called Bhanwan or Pillai. 

● Parshvanath arranged for fourfold vows (Chaturvrata) for the Bhikshus (monks)—(1) I shall not kill the living beings, (2) I shall always speak the truth, (3) I shall not steal, (4) I shall not keep any property.

● Mahavir Swami has been called Nigashtha, Naatputra and Nirgranth Saatputra.

● Mahavir Swami left his mortal frame and attained Nirvana at Pawapuri near Patna in Bihar.

● The Triratna in Jainism are described as Samyak Shraddha (veneration), Samyak Gyan (knowledge) and Samyak Acharana (conduct).

● According to Jainism, Nirvana (redemption) to free the soul from the physical bondage.

● Mahavir Swami has described five vows for the common people which are called as Panchmaha-vrat. These are—Truth, Non-violence, No stealing, No collection of wealth or anything and celibacy (Satya, Ahimsa, Astey, Aparigrah and Brahamacharya). To these was later added, ‘Not to eat at Night’.

● Kaivalya is total knowledge which the Nirgranthget.

● Buddha was born in the Lumbini forest, 14 km beyond Kapilvastu in Nepal Tarai.

● Kaundinya, a Brahmin astrologer, was contemporary of Buddha.

● Gautama obtained knowledge at Gaya. Hence the place is called Bodh Gaya.

● The first sermon of Buddha is known as ‘Dharma Chakra Pravartan’.

● Mahatma Buddha delivered his first sermon at Rishipattan (Saranath).

● The followers of Buddha were divided into four sections—(1) Bhikshu or the monks, (2) Bhik-shuni or lady monks, (3) Upasaks or devotees, (4) Upasikas or lady devotees.

● After delivering his teachings for constant 45 years, Mahatma Buddha attained Mahaparinirvan at the age of 80 at Kushinara (Kushinagar).

● Tripitaks are—(1) Vinay Pitak, (2) Suttpitak, (3) Abhidhamma Pitak.

● Vinay Pitak is divided into 3 sections—(1) Sutta Vibhag, (2) Khandhak, (3) Pariwar.

● Suttpitak contains—Diggh Nikay, Majjhim Nikay, Anguttar Nikay and Khuddak Nikay.

● In Abhidhamma Pitak, philosophical and spiritual thoughts are contained.

● There are seven treatises of Abhidhamma Pitak —(1) Dhamma Sangeeti, (2) Vibhang, (3) Dhatu Katha, (4) Puggal Panjati, (5) Katha Vastu, (6) Yamak, (7) Patthan.

● The eightfold paths are—(1) Right belief, (2) Right thought, (3) Right speech, (4) Right action, (5) Right means of livelihood, (6) Right execution, (7) Right remembrance, (8) Right meditation.

● In Buddhism, the Astangikmarg (eight fold path) is classified as—(1) Praja Skandh, (2) Sheel Skandh, (3) Samadhi Skandh.

● Under Praja Skandh come—Samyak Drishti, Samyak Sankalp and Samyak Vani (speech).

● Under Sheel Skandh come—Samyak Karmant, Samyak Aajeev.

● Under Samadhi Skandh come—Samyak Vyayam, Samyak Smriti and Samyak Samadhi.

● Mahatma Buddha was silent on the existence of God or otherwise but he did not believe in the existence of soul.

● The first Buddhist Council was convened after a few years of Buddha’s death under the chairmanship of Mahakassap in Saptparna caves near Rajgrih.

● The second Buddhist Council was organized at Vaisali.

● The third Buddhist Council was convened at Patliputra during the regime of Ashoka.

● The fourth Buddhist Council was convened at Kashmir during the regime of Kanishka.

● Puranas are said to be 18 in number of which Bhagawata Puran is very renowned.

● Bhagawatism is mentioned for the first time in the Bhishm Parva of Mahabharat.

● The Dravida Vaishnav devotees are known as the Azhwars.

● A Brahman named Kautilya or Chanakya played a significant role in the establishment of the Mauryan Empire.

● In the Greek writings, Chandra Gupta Maurya are called Sandrocottus.

● Arien and Plutarch have called him Androcottus.

● In the Mudra Rakshasa written by Vishakhdutt, Chandra Gupta Maurya is called Chandragiri Chandrashree.

● In Buddhist literature, Mahavansh Tika is the book which throws ample light on the life of Chandra Gupta Maurya.

● ‘Indika’ was written by Megasthenese.

● In the book Mahavansh, Chandra Gupta Maurya is said to be Kshatriya by caste.

● After being defeated in war with Chandra Gupta, Selukose offered him Gadrosia (Baluchistan), Acrosia (Kandahar), Aria (Herat) and a part of Hindukush.

● Sudarshan Lake at Junagarh was built by Chandra Gupta Maurya.

● The Mahasthan inscription points out Chandra Gupta’s ascendancy over Bengal.

● The Rudradaman inscription of Girnar testifies to the suzerainty of Chandra Gupta over Saurashtra.

● According to Jain Texts, Chandra Gupta in the last years of his life, accepted Jainism and went to Mysore with the Jain monk Bhadrabahu.

● The empire of Chandra Gupta spread from Himalaya in the north to Mysore in the south; and from Bengal in the east to Baluchistan in the west. It covered Punjab, Sindh, Kashmir, Doab of Ganga and Yamuna, Magadh, Bengal, Malwa, Saurashtra and the region of Mysore.

● The administrative system of Chandra Gupta Maurya was Monarchy. In order to administer well, Chandra Gupta Maurya appointed a Council of Ministers.

 ● In the Mauryan age, the officer who collected the trade taxes was called Shulkadhyaksha.

 ● The Chairman of the Government services was known as Sutradhyaksha in the Mauryan age.

 ● The officer-in-charge of Weight and Measures was known as Peetadhyaksha in the Mauryan age.

 ● In Mauryan age, the officer who controlled the manufacture of wine, its sale and purchase and its consumption was Suradhyaksha.

 ● The chairman of the agricultural department was called Seetadhyaksha in Mauryan age.

 ● There were many officers such as Ganikadhyaksha,` Mudradhyaksha, Navadhyaksha, Ashwadhyaksha and Devtadhyaksha etc. in the Mauryan Age. 

● The officer who kept the details of total income and expenditure of the State and decided the economic policy was called Sannidhata. Under him, worked officers like Treasurer and Shulkadhyaksha. 

● In Mauryan age, the minister of factories and mines was called Karmantirak. His main task was to excavate different metals from the mines and look after the factories. 

● In Mauryan age the Amatya of Fauzdari (Criminal) Court was called Pradeshta. 

● The Amatya of the Civil Court was known as Vyavaharik. 

● The Greek scholars have described the Amatyas as the seventh caste. 

● The successor of Chandra Gupta Maurya is called name Bindusara in majority of the Puranas. Ceylonese works, Buddhist texts and in Deepvansh and Mahavansh. In Vayu Puran, his name is given as Bhadrasaar. In some of the Puranas he is called as Varisaar. In the Chinese text—Fa-Uen-Chu-Lin, he is called as Bindupal. In another book Rajabalikatha, the successor and son of Chandra Gupta is called as Sinhasen. 

● Ptolemy, the ruler of Egypt sent Dioniyas as his ambassador to the Court of Bindusaar. 

● In Chandra Gupta Maurya’s time, the chief of the city was called Nagaradhyaksha who worked like the modern District Magistrate. 

● The smallest unit of the administration was the village. Its chief officer was called Gramik or Gramani. 

● Gramani was elected by the people of the village. 

● In every village, there was an officer who was called Gram Bhojak. 

● In the administration of Chandra Gupta Maurya the department of espionage was well organized. According to Kautilya, there were two sections of the secret service—(1) Sansthan, (2) Sancharan. 

● In the inscriptions, Ashoka is called Devanampriya and Priyadarshi. 

● The Ceylonese sources and Deepvansh, call him, Priyadarshan and Priyadarshi. Scholars think that these were his titles. 

● Asoka appointed an officer called Mahamatras in every city and district.

 ● In the 13th year of his reign, he appointed Dharma Mahamatra and Dharmayukta for the first time for the happiness and peace of his people. 

● Upagupta was a Bauddhist monk of Mathura under his influence; Ashoka changed his religion and accepted Buddhism. 

● Ahsoka sent his daughter Sanghmitra and son Mahendra to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka. 

● In the mini edicts Ashoka calls himself a Buddha Shakya. 

● Ashoka sent Majjhantik to propogate Buddhism in Kashmir. 

● In 1750, it was Teffenthaler who first explored the Ashokan pillars. 

● Asohka’s last edict was found by Beadon in 1915 at Maski. 

● The small edicts of Ashoka are of two types. According to Smith, they were written in 259-232 B.C. 

● The first kind of Ashoka  small pillar edicts are available at Roopnath in Jabalpur district, Sahasaram in Shahabad district of Bihar, Maski, in Raichoor district, and Vairat in Rajasthan. 

● The second type of Ashoka edicts have been found at Siddhpur (Chitralahug, Mysore) Jatig, Rameshwar and Brahmagiri.

● The Bhabru edict was found at Bairath near Jaipur in Rajasthan. In this edict seven precepts of Buddhism have been given which Asoka liked most and he desired that the people should read them and make their conduct accordingly. This edict is preserved in Kolkata Museum.

● Two edicts about Kalinga have been found at Dhauli and Jaugarh. In these, the principles of behaviour with the people of Kalinga and with the frontier people have been outlined.

● Asokan small edicts have been found at about 15 places.

● The Erangudi edict was found in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh at a place known as Erangudi.

● The Maski small edict was found from Maski village of Raichoor district of Andhra Pradesh. It contains the name of Asoka.

● The Rajul Mandgiri edict was found on a mound 20 miles beyond Erangudi in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh.

● The Gurjara edict has been found from a village named Gurjara in Datia district of Madhya Pradesh. It also mentions the name of Asoka.

● Ahraura edict was found from a hill of the village Ahraura in Mirzapur district of U.P.

● Palgoraria edict was found in 1975.

● The Sannati inscription (edict) has been found in the village Sannati in the district of Gulbarga of Karnatic State.

● The cave inscription are three in number which have been found in the Barabar hills of Gaya city in Bihar. These refer to the charity performed by the King to the Ajivaks.

● The language of the Kandahar edict is Greek and Aramaic.

● The Topara pillar edict has been found from a village named Topara in Haryana. In the course of time Firoz Tughlaq brought it to Delhi where it is kept at Feroz Shah Kotla ground.

● Rumindei small pillar edict was found from the Tarai of Nepal.

● Most of Asokan edicts are written in Prakrit language. 

● In Gupta age ships and boats were manufactured in large numbers. Gujarat, Bengal and Tamil Nadu were the main centres of cotton industry. 

● Trade between India and China was carried on before Gupta age, in 2nd century. 

● India had trade relations with eastern, countries. They were called Swarnabhumi (land of gold). 

● Peshawar, Bharaunch, Ujjaini, Varanasi, Prayag, Patliputra, Mathura, Vaishali and Tamralipti were trade centres. 

● In west Bharaunch and in east, Tamralipti were prominent ports. 

● Gold, silver, bronze, tin, campher, dates and horses were imported. 

● The collective unit of the people who worked in various industries, were known as ‘Kuliks’. 

● ‘Kulik Nigam’ and ‘Shreshthi Nigam were the unions of wealthy traders. The Kulik Nigam had its own seal which was used in commercial correspondence and the trade-goods. 

● In the Gupta age, India maintained trade relations with Arabia. Horses were imported from Arabia and Iran. 

● The Seals of Kulik have been excavated from the town Meeta near Allahabad. 

● From Vaishali 274 Seals of Sarthwah Kulik Nigam have been excavated prove that it was a great institution of the Gupta age. 

● Trade with China, Japan and Sumatra was carried from the port of Tamralipti. 

● In Gupta age the land tax was known as ‘Udrang’. 

● Kadur and Charpal were the ports situated in Andhra Pradesh. 

● Kaveripattanam and Tondai were the ports of Chola State. 

● Kokai and Saliyur were the ports of Pandya State. 

● Kottayam and Mujris were the ports of Malwa State. 

● Sindhu, Orhoth, Kalyan and Mibor were other main ports for trade. 

● Hiranya was the tax realized in cash. Bhutavat Pratyaya was the tax levied upon the imports from other countries. 

● Haldand was the tax charged on the ploughed land. 

● A definite portion of the produce from agricultural land was charged as the land tax by the State. It was called Bhag tax. Generally it was charged in kind. 

● In the Gupta age, the land was donated only to the Brahmans. 

● The land donated to Brahmans was called Brahmadeya. 

● The tax free villages of the Brahmans were called Agrahara. 

● In the Gupta age, the Gram Parishads (village councils) were autonomous and free from the State control. 

● The uncultivated land was the property of the king. 

● The women who remained unmarried throughout their life and passed their time in studies were called Brahmavadinis. 

● Taxila, Varanasi and Ujjaini were prominent centres of education. 

● In the Gupta society, intercaste marriages were performed. 

● The slave system was practised in the Gupta age. 

● The joint family system was in vogue in Gupta society. 

● In the women though not as much respected as in Vedic period, yet enjoyed important position in the society of Gupta age. 

● Sheelbhattarika was an educated and worthy woman of the Gupta age. 

● Widow re-marriages were performed in the Gupta age, But some works of the age speak against it. Chandra Gupta II married the widow of Ramgupta, his brother. Her name was Dhruva Swamini. 

● Prostitutes, expert in music and dance, and perfect in sexology were called ‘Ganikas’. 

● The traders and commercial professionals had their ‘Shrenis’ in Gupta age. The Patkar, Tailik (oil traders), Pashan Kottak (stone cutters) were important Shrenis. 

● The author of ‘Swapnavasavaduttam’ was an eminent prose writer. 

● The author of Bhattikavya or Ravan Vadh, was Bhatti, an eminent poet of Gupta age. 

● Bhartahari worte ‘Niti Shatak’, Shringar Shatak and Vairagya Shatak which became very famous. Some scholars believe that Bhartruhari is another name for Bhatti. 

● ‘Kuntleshwar Daityam’ is a drama that testifies to the fact that Kalidas belonged to the Gupta age. 

● ‘Abhigyanshakuntalam’ ‘Meghdoot’ ‘Ritusanhar’ are some of the major works of Kalidas. 

● Kamsutra is a famous book on Sexology written by Vatsyayan. 

● Vaibhashik and Sanghbhadra were the two Acharyas (teachers) of the Gupta age who wrote the literature of the Vaibhashik sect.

Knowledge of science and technology, however, got linked with religion and social relations. Relying primarily on pragmatism some intellectuals in India acquired intuitive awareness of scientific temper. In view of absence of experiment, some insights became ridiculous. 

Knowledge of science was known from very ancient times, although science, as we know today, was not known in India till modern times. The archaeological remains of the Indus Valley reveal knowledge of applied sciences. Scientific techniques were used in irrigation, Metallurgy, making of fired bricks and pottery, and simple reckoning and measurement of areas and volumes. 

It contrast more is known about Aryan achievements in the field of astronomy, mathematics and medicine. Chinese records indicate knowledge of a dozen books of Indian origin. Brahmagupta’s Sidhanta as well as Charaka’s and Susrata’s Samhitas were translated into Arabic in the 9th or 10th centuries A.D. 

In ancient Indian mathematics was known by the general name of Ganita, which included arithmetic’s, geometry, algebra, astronomy and astrology. It was Aryabhatta, who gave a new direction to trigonometry. The decimal system too was an innovation of India.

 By the third century B.C. mathematics, astronomy and medicine began to develop separately. In the field of mathematics ancient Indians made three distinct contributions, the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The earliest epigraphic evidence of the use of decimal system belongs to the fifth century A.D. Before these numerals appeared in the West they had been used in India for centuries. They are found in the inscriptions of Ashoka in the third century B.C. 

Indians were the first to use the decimal system. The famous mathematics Aryabhata. (A.D. 476-500) was acquainted with it. The Chinese learnt this system from the Buddhist missionaries, and the western world borrowed it from the Arabs when they came in contact with India. Zero was discovered by Indians in about the second century B.C. From the very beginning Indian mathematicians considered zero as a separate numeral, and it was used in this sense in arithmetic’s. In Arabia the earliest use of zero appears in A.D. 873. The Arabs learnt and adopted it from India and spread it in Europe. So far as Algebra is concerned both Indians and Greeks contributed to it, but in Western Europe its knowledge was borrowed not from Greece but from the Arabs who had acquired it from India.

 In the second century B.C. Apastemba contributed to practical geometry for the construction of altars on which the kings could offer sacrifices. It describes acute angle, obtuse angle, right angle etc. Aryabhatta formulated the rule for finding the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of trigonometry. The most famous work of his time is the Suryasiddhantha the like of which was not found in Contemporary ancient east.

 During the Gupta period mathematics was developed to such an extent and more advanced than any other nation of antiquity. Quite early India devised a rudimentary algebra which led to more calculations than were possible for the Greeks and led to the study of number for its own sake. The earliest inscription regarding the data by a system of nine digits and a zero is dated as 595 A.D. evidently the system was known to mathematicians some centuries before it was employed in inscriptions. Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta (7th century), Mahavira (9th century) and Bhaskara (12th century) made several discoveries which were known to Europe only after Renaissance. The understood the importance of positive and negative quantities, evolved sound system of extracting squares and cube roots and could solve quadratic and certain types of indeterminate equations. Aryabhatta gave approximate value of pie. It was more accurate than that of the Greeks. Also some strides were made in trigonometry, empirical geometry and calculus. Chiefly in astronomy the mathematical implications of zero and infinity were fully realized unlike anywhere in the world.

Among the various branches of mathematics, Hindus gave astronomy the highest place of honor. Suryasiddhantha is the best know book on Hindu astronomy. The text was later modified two or three times between 500 A.D. and 1500 A.D. The system laid down in the book can even now be used to predict eclipse within an error of two or three hours.

 The most renowned scholars of astronomy were Aryabhatta and Varhamihira. Aryabhatta belonged to the fifth century, and Varahamihira to the sixth. Aryabhatta calculated the position of the planets according to the Babylonian method. He discovered the cause of lunar and solar eclipses. The circumstances of the earth which he measured on the basis of the speculation are considered to be correct even now. He pointed out that the sun is stationary and the earth rotates around it. The book of Aryabhatta is the Aryabhattiya. Varhimihira’s well-known work is called Brihatsamhita which belongs to the sixth century A.D. Varhamihira stated that the moon rotates around the earth and the earth rotates around the earth rotates around the sun. He utilized several Greek works to explain the movement of the planets and some other astronomical problems. Although Greek knowledge influenced Indian astronomy, there is no doubt that Indian pursued the subject further and made use of it in their observations of the planets.

Aryabhatta wrote a book when he was barely 23 years. Varhmihira of the sixth century wrote a summary of five astronomical books current wrote a summary of five astronomical books current in his time. Brahamagupta of the seventh century A.D. appreciated the value of observation and astronomy and his book was translated into Arabic. One last great scientist was Bhaskara II. One of the chapters in the book “Sidhanta Shiromani”, dealing with mathematics, is the well-known work of Lilavait.

 Nevertheless, Indian views on the original and evolution of the universe was matter of religion rather than of science. The cosmic schemes of Hindus and Jains in fundamentals were the same. All postulated a flat earth although Indian astronomers came to know that this was incorrect early in the Christian era. The idea of flat such remained for religious purposes.

 Regarding astronomy proper it was studied as a Vedanta. Its name was Jyotisha. A primitive kind of astronomy was developed mainly for the purpose of settling the dates and times at which periodical sacrifices were to be performed. Several Greek words gained momentum in Sanskrit through knowledge of Greek astronomy. The sixth century astronomer Varahamihira called one of his five astronomical systems as Romaka Sidhanta. It is only western astronomy that introduced in Indian the sign of the Zodiac. The seven-day week, the hour, and several other ideas. Later, Indian astronomers made some advances on the knowledge of the Greeks and passed on their knowledge with that of mathematics via the Arabs to Europe. As early as seventh century, a Syrian astronomer knew of the greatness of Indian astronomy and mathematics.

 In the field of medicine, Aurveda was the contribution of India. Seven hundred hymns in the Vedas, particularly Atharva Veda, refer to topics of Ayurveda. Indeed, the whole approach was not scientific. His earliest mention of medicines is in the Atharva Veda. As in order ancient societies, the remedies recommended in it they are replete with magical charms and spells. Medicine could not develop along scientific lines. In post-Maurya time India witnessed two famous scholars of the Aurveda, Susrtua and Charaka. In the Susrutasmhita,  Susruta describes methods of operating cataract, stone disease and several other ailments. He mentions as many as 121 implements to be used for operations. For the treatment of disease he lays special emphasis on diet and cleanliness.  Charaka wrote the Charakasamhita in the second century A.D. It is like encyclopedia of Indian medicines. It describes various types of fever. Leprosy, hysteria and tuberculosis.

 Possibly Charaka did not know that some of these are infections. His book contains the names of a large number of plants and herbs which were to be used as medicine. The book is thus useful not only for study of ancient Indian medicine but also for ancient Indian flora and chemistry. In subsequent centuries Indian medicines developed on the lines laid down by Charaka. The Vedic hymns attribute various diseases to demons and spirits and the remedies for hymns prescribing correctly the symptoms of pulmonary tuberculosis, and connecting dropsy with heart diseases.

 However, national medicine began to 800 B.C. Medicine became a regular subject of study at centers like Taxila and Varanasi. The latter specialized in surgery. Susrutasmhita was compiled in the fourth century A.D. Charaka compiled the teachings of two of his predecessors who served at Taxila. Charaka and Susruta’s Samhitas reached as far as Manchuria through translations in Tibetan and other Asian languages. In the eighth century A.D. these books influenced European medicine as carried over by two Arabs. Charaka Samhita was published as late as 1550 in Arabic. Despite these achievements, medicine did not make any remarkable strides, for absence of dissection led to ignorance of anatomy and physiology. Indians were equally ……………….. of the functions of internal organs such as lungs and brain.

 Surgery of some kind was even during the Vedic period. It was only from the time of Susruta that surgery came to occupy an important place in medicine. Surgical operations were performed like taking the fetus out of the womb. Including caesarean, section, treatment of fistula removal of stone from bloder and plastic surgery for the nose. 

Despite the developments as the above in medicine, ancient Indian doctors, in general had no knowledge of the functions of brain, although they knew the importance of the spinal cord and the existence of nervous system. Once again social taboos stood in the way of the growth of medical knowledge. It was a taboo to touch dead bodies.

Despite the fact that the physiological knowledge of ancient Indians was very poor, Indians evolved empirical surgery. They knew bone-setting, plastic surgery and surgeons in ancient India were experts is repairing noses, ears and lips lost, or injured by mutilation.

 The physician was a respectable member of society as the Vaidyas were ranked higher in the hierarchy. Even to this day the rules of professional behavior laid down in medical tests are almost the same as those of Hippocrates. Of course, some statements at one place state that the Physicians should not betray the patients and should be always of pleasant speech. In this context, he pleads that every day they must pray on rising and going to bed, since the work of the welfare of the all beings specially cows.

 Regarding physics, it was closely linked with religion and theology and it even differed from sect to sect. Almost all religions believed that the universe consisted of elements like earth, air, water, and Akasha (ether). Most schools maintained that there were as many types of atoms as there were elements. Some Buddhists conceived atom as the minutes object capable of occupying space but also as occupying the minutest possible duration of time coming into being and vanishing almost in an instant only to be succeeded by another atom caused by the first. This somewhat resembles the quantum theory of Planck. The Vaisheshika School believed a single atom to be a point in space completely without magnitude. Further, most of the schools believed that atoms constitute molecules. However, the Indian atomic theories were not based on experiment but intuitive logic. The great theologian Sankara strongly argued against their existence.

 Beyond this knowledge of atoms, physics in India did not develop much. However, in the science of acoustics, India made real discovers. Based on experience for this correct recitation on Vedas, the human era was highly trained for the phonetic study – distinguished musical tones far closer than those of other ancient musical systems much earlier than other civilization.

Regarding chemistry and metallurgy too, some progress was made in ancient times. The Harappans developed metallurgy of copper and bronze about 2500 B.C. The Vedic Aryans tanned leather, fermented grains and fruits, and dyed scale production of copper, iron and steel, brass, silver and gold and their alloys. Indian steel was highly esteemed in the ancient world and it was exported in large quantities. Tin and mercury were imported and worked. And from the seventh century, alchemy was referred to in literature. The medical chemistry of ancient India did succeed in producing many important alkalis, acids and metallic salts. It is claimed by Bashama that ancient Indians ever discovered a form of gun powder. The coming of middle ages, Indian chemists, like their counterparts in the rest of the world, became increasingly interested in a specific remedy for all diseases, the source of perpetual youth, and even the surest means to salvation. Although they could not make precious metals, they could understand the chemistry of metallic sets. The heights attained by Indians in metallurgy and engineering are borne out by the almost pure copper stature of Buddha found at Sultanganj and the famous iron Pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi which has been able to withstand rain and weather for centuries without rusting).

By

Shabeer Mon , Asst.Prorfessor, Kerala

The highly esteemed Vedas have come to down to us. They existed for nearly over 2000 years before they were known in India. It was the knowledge of acoustics that enabled ancient Indians to orally transmit the Vedas from generation to generation. Institutional form of imparting learning came into existence in the early centuries of the Christian era. The approach to learning was to study logic and epistemology. 

The study of logic was followed by Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, one of the most important topics of Indian thoughts was pramana or means of reliable knowledge. The nyaya schools upheld four pramanas – perceptions of are liable by analogy or comparison, word (Sabda), and pronunciation of a reliable authority such as the Vedas. The Vedanta school added one more to it i.e. intuition. 

It is probably while studying the process of inference that the schools of true logic arose. Ancient Indian postulated syllogism though not as accurate as that of Aristotle. Yet, they recognize some of the major fallacies of logic like reduction and absurdum, circular argument, infinite regression, dilemma, and ignoratio elenchus. 

In the field epistemology, Jains contributed the most for the Jains there was not only two possibilities of existence and non-existence but seven more. Although the modern logicians might laugh at this pedantic system of ontological and epistemological reality they concede that the world is more complex and subtle than we think it to be. 

Regarding institutional form of education the first was the guru-sishya system. According to sacred texts, the training of the Brahmin pupil took place at the home of a Brahmin teacher. In some texts the guru is depicted as the poor ascetic and it is the duty of the student to beg for his teacher. The first lesson that was taught to the student was the performance of Sandhya and also reciting of Gayatri mantra. 

The family functioned as a domestic school, an Asrama or a hermitage where the mental faculties of the pupils were developed by the teacher’s constant attention and personal instruction. Education, treating as a matter of individual concern, did not admit of the method of mass production applicable in industry. The making of man was regarded as an artistic and not a mechanical process. Indeed, the aim of education was the developing of the pupil’s personality, his innate and latent capacities. This view of education as a process of one’s inner growth and self-fulfillment evolved its own technique, its rules, methods and practices. 

The thinking principle, manana sakti was reckoned higher than the subject of thinking. So the primary subject of education was the mind itself. According to the ancient Indian theory of education, the training of the mind and the process of thinking, are essential for the acquisition of knowledge. The chase counts more than the game. So the pupil had mainly to educe himself and achieves his own mental growth. Education was reduced to the three simple processes of Sravana, Manana and Nidhyaasana. Sravana was listening to the truths as they fell from the lips of the teacher. Knowledge was technically called Shruti or what was heard by the ear and not what was seen in writing.  The second process of knowledge called Manana implies that the pupil has to think out for himself the meaning of the lessons imparted to him orally by his teacher so that they may be assimilate fully. The third step known as Nidhyasana means complete comprehension by the pupil of the truth that is taught so that he may live the truth and not merely explain it by word. Knowledge must cultivate in realization. The admission was made by the formal ceremony Upanayana or initiation by which the pupil left the home of his natural parents for that of the preceptor. In this new home he had a second birth and was called Dvijya (Twice-born). 

Besides these regular schools of instructions, there were special institutions for the promotion of advance study and research. These are called in the Rig Veda as Brahmana-Sangha, Academies of learned most its discussions hammered into shape the very language of the country, the refined language of Sanksrit (Samskrita) as the Vehicle of highest thought. These Academics were called Prisads, there is a reference to the Panchala pParisad in the Upanishads, in whose proceedings even kings participated, learning was also prompted by discussions at public meetings which were a regular of rural life, and were addressed by wandering scholars known as Carakas, These scholars toured the country to deliver public discourses and invite discussion. 

What might count as earliest literary congress of the world was the congress of philosophers which was codification of Brahmanical philosophy by discussing the subject under the direction of the master philosopher, Yajnavalkya. In these deliberations at the highest level, a lady- philosopher named Gargi was a prominent participant beside men like Uddalaka Arni. Obviously, in those days women were admitted to the highest knowledge and did not suffer from any education disabilities. There was equality between the sexes in the field of knowledge. The Rig Veda mentions women rays called as Brahmanavadinis. 

To begin with, in ancient India, the main subject was the Veda. The teacher would instruct handful of students seated on ground. For many hours daily they would repeat verses after verses of the Vedas till they attain mastery of at least one of them. To ensure correctness of memory, the hymns were taught in more than one way.

Soon the curricula were expanded. The limbs of the Veda or the six Vedangas were taught – the performance of sacrifice, correct pronunciation, knowledge of prosody, etymology, grammar, and jyotisha or the science of calendar. Also in the post-Vedic era, teachers often instructed their students in the six schools of Philosophy.

The writers of Smritis maintain that young women of upper class underwent this kind of training. This is a doubtful contention. Princess and other leading Kshatriyas were trained in all the manifold sciences to make them fit for government. Most boys of the lower orders learnt their trades from their fathers. 

Some cities became renowned because of their teachers. Chief among them were – Varanasi, Taxila from the day of Buddha and Kanchi in the beginning of the Christian era. Varanasi was famous for its religious teachers. Taxila was known for its secular studies. Among the famous men connected with Taxila were Panini, the grammarian of the fifth or fourth century B.C. : Kautilya, the Brahmin minister of Chandragupta Maurya and Charaka one of the two leading authorities of Indian medical sciences. The institutions imparting Vedic knowledge that exists even today. There were also universities like Taxila and Ujjain for medicine and learning including mathematics and astronomy respectively. In the south Kanchi became an important center of learning. Hiuen remarks that Vallabhi was as great as Nalanda and Vikramashila. 

Although the Smritis maintained that a small number of students study under a single teacher, university turned towns came into existence like Varanasi, Taxila etc.  At Varanasi there were 500 students and a number of teachers. The whole establishment was maintained by charitable people ideally, the teacher asked no fee, but the students repaid his debt by their service to the teacher. A Jathaka story tells of how a teacher of Taxila treated well the students who paid him money while keeping other waiting. It is also interesting to note that in Taxila even married people were admitted as students. 

Out of all the Universities, Nalanda and imposed structures. Eight Colleges were built by different patterns including one by the king of Sri Vijaya (Sumatra). One of the colleges was four storied high as stated by Hiuen-Tsang. Every facility existed for studying various kinds of subjects in the University. There were three great libraries as per Tibetan records. 

Nalanda attracted students not only from different parts of India but also from Tibet and China. The standards of examination were stiff, and only those who could pass the test prescribed by the dvarapandita or the scholar at the gate were admitted to this university. Also, for being admitted to the university, candidates were required to be familiar with old and new books. 

Nalanda was one of the earliest examples of residential cum-teaching institutions which housed thousands of monks devoted to learning, philosophy and meditation. Over 10,000 students including teachers lived and studied at the university. They came from various parts of the world apart from India-Central Asia, China and Korea. 

Though Nalanda was primarily a Buddhist university its curricula included Hindu scriptures, Philosophy and medicine as recorded by Hiuen-Tsang. Logic and exegetics were pre-eminent because these students were expected to enter into dialogue with visiting doctors of all schools. This compulsion of public debate made both teachers and students become familiar with all systems of thought in accurate summary. 

The university had also succession of brilliant teachers. Dharmapala was a Tamil noble from Kanchi in the south. Janamitra come from another country. Silabhadra, the saintly guru of Hiuen-Tsang, came from Assam and he was a converted Brahmin. A great achievement of the University was that it was able to continuously rejuvenate Buddhism in far off countries. Tibetan records mention a succession of learned monks who visited their country. It is also said that Sudhakara Simha went to China and worked there on the translation of Buddhist texts.

By Shabeer Mone.Asst Professor , Kerala

Which is the oldest Veda?
(a) Rig Veda
(b) Atharva Veda
(c) Sama Veda
(d) Yajur Veda

Answer: Rig Veda

Which of the following Vedas is a collection of spellsand incantations?
(a) Sama Veda
(b) Yajur Veda
(c) Atharva Veda
(d) Rig Veda

Answer: Atharva Veda

Which among the following, was the chief feature of Rig Vedic religion ?
(a) Performance of sacrifices
(b) Predominance of female goddesses
(c) Belief in existence of life after death
(d) Worship of images

Answer: Worship of images

800 B.C.-600 B.C. is designated as the
(a) Period of Mahabharat
(b) Period of Brahmanas
(c) Period of the Sutras
(d) Period of Ramayana

Answer: Period of Brahmanas

Which one of the following was the main characteristic of the later Vedic age ?
(a) Caste system
(b) Food gathering practice
(c) Varna system
(d) Tribal polity

Answer: Caste system

Which of the following is an Upanishad ?
(a) Krishna Karnamruta
(b) Aitreya
(c) Vijasena
(d) Chandogya
Answer: Aitreya

The Vedic deity Indra was the goddess of
(a) Rain and thunder
(b) Fire
(c) Wind
(d) Eternity

Answer: Rain and thunder

Which one of the following contains the Gayatri Mantra ?
(a) Yajur Veda
(b) Sama Veda
(c) Upanishad
(d) Rig Veda

Answer: Rig Veda

Which among the following is the source of information about early Vedic period ?
(a) Excavations
(b) Rig Veda
(c) Jataka stories
(d) Post- Vedic literature

Answer: Rig Veda

What was the basis of class differentiation among Aryans ?
(a) Economic condition
(b) None of these
(c) Trade
(d) Colour

Answer: Colour

Which of the following ideals is not contained in the Atharva Veda ?
(a) Moksha
(b) Upasana
(c) Gnana
(d) Karma

Answer: Moksha

Varna system of Aryans was based on
(a) Caste
(b) Sex
(c) Colour
(d) Occupation

Answer: Colour

The chief characteristic of the Rig Vedic religion was
(a) Performance of sacrifices
(b) Preponderance of female goddesses
(c) Worship of images
(d) Belief in the existence of heaven

Answer: Performance of sacrifices

The God not worshipped during the time of Rig Vedic Aryans was
(a) Marut
(b) Shiva
(c) Indra
(d) Agni

Answer: Shiva

The Rig Veda consists of ?
(a) 2000
(b) 1028
(c) 512
(d) 1024

Answer: 1028

The ninth mandala of the Rig Veda samhita is devoted wholly to
(a) Gods related to plants and drugs
(b) Soma and the god who is named after the drink
(c) Urvashi and the Heaven
(d) Indra and his elephant

Answer: Soma and the God who is named after the drink

Which of the following animals was known to ancient Vedic people ?
(a) Lion
(b) Tiger
(c) Elephant
(d) Boar

Answer: Lion

In Rig Vedic society, which of the following was unknown?
(a) Child marriage
(b) Polyandry
(c) Polygamy
(d) Purdah system

Answer: Polyandry

The family of the Rig Vedic Aryans was
(a) Matrilineal
(b) Patrilineal
(c) Patriarchal
(d) Matrairchal

Answer: Patrilineal

The Vishnu Purana gives an account of
(a) Life in Indus Valley
(b) Mauryan dynasty
(c) The Andhras
(d) The Vardhanas

Answer: Mauryan dynasty

The word Vid from which Veda has been derived means
(a) God
(b) Holy
(c) Doctrine
(d) Knowledge

Answer: God

The ritualistic precepts attached to the hymns of the Vedas were known as the
(a) Upanishads
(b) Aranyakas
(c) Brahmanas
(d) Samhitas

Answer: Brahmanas

The Aryans at first settled in
(a) Punjab
(b) Kashmir
(c) Sindh
(d) Gujarat

Answer: Punjab

Which of the following craftmanship was not practised by the Aryans?
(a) Blacksmith
(b) Carpentery
(c) Pottery
(d) Jewellery

Answer: Blacksmith

The Aryans came to India from
(a) South-east Asia
(b) None of these
(c) Central Asia
(d) Eastern Europe

Answer: Central Asia

Brahmanas are books that deal with
(a) Bhakti
(b) Meditation
(c) Ritualism
(d) Yoga

Answer: Bhakti

Which of the following Vedas throws light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans ?
(a) Samaveda
(b) Atharvaveda
(c) Yajurveda
(d) Rigveda

Answer: Rigveda

The Puranas contain
(a) Laws of Manu and the history on various dynasties
(b) Thoughts on the mystery of life and universe mythology.
(c) Hymns in favour of the Gods
(d) Mythology

Answer: Thoughts on the mystery of life and universe mythology.

The code of conduct of the Vedic society was laid out in which of the following texts ?
(a) Vedas
(b) Upanishads
(c) Puranas
(d) Smritis

Answer: Smritis

The chief impact of Vedic culture on Indian history was the
(a) Progress of philosophy
(b) Rise of other wordly outlook
(c) Consolidation of caste system
(d) Growth of Sanskrit

Answer: Consolidation of caste system

Ayurveda owes its origin to
(a) Sama Veda
(b) Atharva Veda
(c) Yajur Veda
(d) Rig Veda

Answer: Yajur Veda

Which subject is not dealt with in the Puranas ?
(a) Arithmetic
(b) Genealogies of gods
(c) Primary ceation
(d) Secondary creation

Answer: Arithmetic

The Term nishka, which meant an ornament in the Vedic period, was used in later times to denote a/an
(a) Script
(b) Argriculture implement
(c) Coin
(d) Weapon

Answer: Coin

Which is the most important divinity of Rig Veda?
(a) Marut
(b) Shakti
(c) Agni
(d) Varun

Answer: Varun

What is the subject matter of the Upanishads ?
(a) Philosophy
(b) Yoga
(c) Religion
(d) Law

Answer: Religion

Rigveda Samhita denotes one fourth of its hymns to
(a) Rudra
(b) Marut
(c) Indra
(d) Agni

Answer: Indra

Boghazkoi is important because
(a) It is known as significant trading centre between Central Asia and Tibet.
(b) None of these
(c) The original text of the Vedas was composed there.
(d) Insription found here mention the names of Vedic gods and goddesses.

Answer: Insription found here mention the names of Vedic gods and goddesses.

Rigveda is divided into 10 books. Which among the following book(s) is/are the oldest ?
(a) Second-seventh
(b) Third-ninth
(c) First
(d) Second-eighth

Answer: Second-seventh

Which of the following Vedas is rendered musically ?
(a) Sama Veda
(b) Atharva Veda
(c) Rig Veda
(d) Yajur Veda

Answer: Sama Veda

The salient feature of Rigvedic religion was the worship of
(a) Pashupati
(b) Trimurti
(c) Mother Goddess
(d) Nature

Answer: Nature

Which God lost his importance as the first deity during the Rig Vedic period ?
(a) Agni
(b) Rudra
(c) Indra
(d) Varuna

Answer: Varuna

Which was the God of animal during the later Vedic period ?
(a) Vishnu
(b) Prajapati
(c) Rudra
(d) Indra

Answer: Rudra

 The Gayatri Mantra contained in the Rig Veda is dedicated to which deity ?
(a) Surya
(b) Savitri
(c) Agni
(d) Marut

Answer: Savitri

By

Shabeer Mon Asst.Professor , Kerala

Earliest known precise celestial calculations: Aryabhata, an Indian Mathematician (c. 500AD) accurately calculated celestial constants like earth’s rotation per solar orbit, days per solar orbit, days per lunar orbit. 

Astronomical time spans: Apart from the peoples of the Mayan civilization, the ancient Hindus appear to be the only people who even thought beyond a few thousand years. Hindu scriptures refer to time scales that vary from ordinary earth day and night to the day and night of the Brahma that are a few billion earth years long. 

Theory of creation of the universe: A 9th century Hindu scripture, The Mahapurana by Jinasena claims that the world is uncreated, as time itself is, without beginning and end. And it is based on principles. 

Earth goes round the sun: Aryabhata, it so happens, was apparently quite sceptical of the widely held doctrines about eclipses and also about the belief that the Sun goes round the Earth. As early as the sixth century, he talked of the diurnal motion of the earth and the appearance of the Sun going round it.

Binary System of number representation: A Mathematician named Pingala (c. 100BC) developed a system of binary enumeration convertible to decimal numerals. He described the system in his book called Chandahshaastra. The system he described is quite similar to that of Leibnitz, who was born in the 17th century. 

Earliest and only known Modern Language: Panini (c 400BC), in his Astadhyayi, gave formal production rules and definitions to describe Sanskrit grammar. Starting with about 1700 fundamental elements, like nouns, verbs, vowels and consonants, he put them into classes. The construction of sentences, compound nouns etc. was explained as ordered rules operating on underlying fundamental structures. 

Invention of Zero: Although ancient Babylonians were known to have used what is often called “place holders” to distinguish between numbers like 809 and 89, they were nothing more than blank spaces or at times two wedge shapes like”. The first notions of zero as a number and its uses have been found in ancient Mathematical treatise from India. 

The word “Algorithm”: Al-Khwarizmi’s work, De numero indorum (Concerning the Hindu Art of Reckoning), was based presumably on an Arabic translation of Brahmagupta where he gave a full account of the Hindu numerals which was the first to expound the system with its digits 0,1,2,3,…,9 and decimal place value which was a fairly recent arrival from India. The new notation came to be known as that of al-Khwarizmi, or more carelessly, algorism; ultimately the scheme of numeration making use of the Hindu numerals came to be called simply algorism or algorithm, a word that, originally derived from the name al-Khwarizmi. 

Representing Large numbers: Mathematicians in India invented the base ten system in ancient times. But research did not stop there. The practice of representing large numbers also evolved in ancient India. Notion of representing large numbers as powers of 10, one that was invented in India, turned out to be extremely handy.

By

Shabeer Mon. Asst Porfessor. Kerala

Apart from flourishing trade, other significant features of this period are: monetization of economy, development of crafts, growth of urban centers and weakening of state control over the farming operations.

The post-Mauryan India saw the monetization of economy on an unprecedented scale. The Indo- Greek rulers were the first to issue gold coins. Menander was perhaps the last of the Indo-Greek rulers to issue gold coins. After them the Kushanas issued them in considerable numbers. In the opinion of some scholars, all Kushana gold coins were minted out of Roman gold. 

However, gold mines existed in Sind in the time of Alexander and the gold mines of Dhalbhum lay under the sway of the Kushanas. Apart from this, the imported gold coins were mostly used as bullion or at times they may have been circulated only in large transactions. The Satavahanas issued coins in metals of low value i.e. lead, and copper. The Kushanas perhaps issued the largest number of copper coins.

Not only the imperial dynasties but also the smaller republican dynasties issued silver and copper coins. The Nagas, Yaudheyas, Kunindas, Mitra rulers of Kaushambi, Mathura, Avanti and Ahichhatra etc. all issued their own coins. 

Many nigamas also issued coins of copper and bronze all this show that money had penetrated deep into the life of common man during the post-Mauryan India. The silver coin of thirty-two ratis was known to Manu as purana or dharana. The copper coin of eight ratis was known as karshapana. Smaller copper coins known as kakani were also in circulation. 

Till now only one gold punch marked coin is known. The Indo-Greeks mainly issued silver and copper coins and very rarely gold coins. Shaka and Pahlava coins in silver and copper usually follow the reduced Indo-Greek standard. The gold dinaras and suvarnas of the Kushanas were based on the Roman denarius and were of 124 grains. Double and quarter dinaras were also issued. 

Expansion of trade and monetization of economy is closely related to the growth of urban centers in the country. Urbanization in this period has been termed as the third phase of early historic urban growth (1 st: 7-6 centuries BC; 2nd: Mauryan period). 

In the north-western India the main cause of urbanization seems to be the trade routes and increased traffic., That is why Mortimer Wheeler described both Charsada and Taxila, the two most notable urban centers, as ‘caravan cities’. The modern city of Charsada is known as Pushkalavati in Indian sources and Peucelaotis and Proclais in classical sources. Its importance declined slightly with the growth of Purushapura under the Kushanas. According to A. H. Dani the city, was founded by Menander.

Here a house of the Kushana period is associated with a Buddhist teacher, Naradakha. Taxila, the second important city, was a trade centre par excellence, owing its importance to its position on the route converging upon Bactria. 

A second route moved up from Taxila to Central Asia by way of Kashmir. Archaeologically, Taxila is the most extensively excavated city site of the subcontinent. The three successive urban settlements of Taxila, the Bhir mourd, Sirkap and Sirsukh have been excavated. 

Sirsukh was laid out by the Kushanas. In Kashmir valley the three successors of Kanishka, viz. Huviska, Vashiska and Vasudeva, established cities but no archaeological evidence survives. In the Punjab plains, Tulamba could be a city of Malloi. Sakala or Segal, the capital of Menander, has been described as a rich and prosperous city laid out on the typical chess­board pattern in the Milindapanho.

In the Mahabharata this was the capital of the Madra kingdom. The literary sources further indicate that the Sakal was an important early historical trade centre having connections with both the west and the Gangetic valley. Identified with modern Sialkot, its existence could not be proved by excavations.

The region known as Indo-Gangetic divide was an indisputable area of cultural transition where influences from inner India and the west mingled together. Khokra Kot near Rohtak and Sunet near Ludhiana, both associated with the Yaudheyas, a series of mounds in Kurukshetra, Agroha and Sirsa near Hissar all show prosperity during the post- Mauryan phase. Rupar, Sugh (ancient Shrughna) etc. belonging to Kushana period are very significant. 

In the upper Gangetic valley, places like Hastinapur, Indraprastha (Purana Qila in Delhi), Mathura, Sankisa, Ahichchhatra, Saketa-Ayodhya, Kaushambi, and Bhita were important urban centers. Milindapanho refers to Mathura as one of the chief cities of India. The Numerous inscriptions and ayagapatas recovered from the Kankali Tila mound testify that it was an important centre of Jainism.

Inscriptions refer to Caravan leaders, perfumers, bankers, Metalworkers, treasurers etc. Mathura was also a noted centre of the Bhagavata and the Naga cults. Literary sources amply testify that Mathura was both a religious centre and an important entrepot of trade and commerce. Ahichchhatra, the capital of north Panchala, is known as Parichakra in the Shatapatha, Brahmana while Ptolemy knows this as Adisadra. 

It was an important township in the post-Mauryan period. Kausambi was first the capital of the Mitra kings and later, in the 2nd century AD, that of the Maghas. During this phase Ghoshitarama monastery flourished in Kaushambi. Bhita near Kaushambi was a prosperous trade centre. It was known as Vicchi or Vicchigrama in ancient period. 

In the middle Gangetic plain Varanasi (modern Rajghat) was an important trade-mart and commercial centre. It was the meeting point of at least three trade-routes. Sravasti, identified with Saheth-Maheth, was a nerve centre of commerce and a number of routes emerged from here. 

It had routes for Saketa, Rajagriha, Kaushambi, Varanasi, Alavi, Samkasya and Taxila. It had direct trade routes for Ujjaini, Mahishmati, Pratisthana, Bharukachchha and Surparaka. The ancient monastery site of Jetavana is located nearby. In the Nepalese Terai region, we have Piprahwa, Ganwaria, Tilaura-Kot and in north Bihar Katragarh, Balirajgarh and Vaisali (Raja-Visal-Ka- Garh) were important townships. In the lower Gangetic valley (Bengal) we have Kotasur, Tamluk, Pushkarana, Chandraketugarh, Mahasthangarh and Wari-Bateshwar as important trade centers. Sisupalgarh and Jaugada are the two early historic cities of coastal Orissa. In Eastern Rajasthan, we have Bairat, Rairh, Sambhar and Nagari. 

These are Mauryan in core but showing post-Mauryan affluence. In Madhya Pradesh, Vidisha was the western capital of the Shungas. It was an important breakpoint on the route linking north India, Deccan and west India. Its economic prosperity is shown from the references to its laborers, bankers and artisan guilds in some early dedicatory inscriptions. 

Vidisha also seems to have been an important craft centre, particularly noted for ivory, weaving and sharp swords. Pawaya or ancient Padmavati and Ujjaini were other important cities in central India. The route from the Gangetic valley bifurcated at Ujjaini for the Deccan and west India. 

With the development of India’s Mediterranean trade, the Gujarat coastline attained a new stage of economic prosperity. The most important city in Gujarat was ancient Bharukachchha or Bhrigukaccha of the Indian sources and Barygaza of the classical sources. It was a port par excellence.

Not only was its immediate hinterland fertile, producing wheat, rice and cotton, but its connection stretched to Ujjaini and Pratisthana. It not only catered to the Mediterranean trade, it is said to have had connections with Sri Lanka and south-east Asia. 

In the Deccan region we have Bhokardan (ancient Bhogavardhana), Paithan (Pratishthan), Tagara, Brahmapuri, Adam and Kaundinyapur in Maharashtra; Banavasi, Isila and Sannati in Karnataka; and Nagarjunakonda (Vijayapur),Satanikota, Dhanyakataka, Kondapur and Peddavegi (ancient Vengi) in Andhra as important cities in Tamilnadu, we have many urban centres such as Arikamedu, Kaveripattinam, Uraiyur and Musiris in Kerala. Thus we see that the whole Indian subcontinent was dotted with urban centers during the post-Mauryan period. 

Expansion of trade networks and the consequent growth of money economy led to a proliferation of craft production and better management of industrial production and procurement. This is shown by the fact that the Digha Nikaya belonging to pre-Mauryan age mentions around two dozen occupations whereas the Mahavastu belonging to the post-Mauryan period mentions 36 kinds of workers living in the town of Rajagira. 

The Milindapanho lists nearly 75 occupations of which nearly 60 are connected with crafts. Of these, eight crafts were associated with the working of mineral products: gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, brass, iron and precious stones or jewels. A variety of brass (arakuta), zinc, antimony and red arsenic also find mention cloth making, silk weaving, and arms making made progress during this period. Technological knowledge about the working of iron had made considerable progress. 

Salmasius informs us of a Greek monograph on Indian steel. Under Marcus Aurelius, there was an import tax on Ferrum Irtdicum. In the Sirkap city of Taxila, a large number and variety of iron objects have been unearthed. The Periplus mentions exports of Indian iron and steel from Ariaca (around the Gulf of Cambay) to African ports.

The Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh seems to have been the richest, so far as the finds of iron objects are concerned. In addition to weapons, balance rods, socketed axes and hoes, sickles, ploughshares, razors and ladles have been unearthed in Karimnagar and Nalgonda districts. Interestingly, the site in Karimnagar was a rural settlement where carpenters, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, potters etc. lived in separate quarters. 

It is rather surprising that cotton (karpasa), out of which most of the cloths were made, is not mentioned in the indigenous literature till the fifth century BC (Panini), though the cotton plant is indigenous to India. From the Arthashastra we know that the seats of cotton industry were in Aparanta (Konkan), Kalinga, Vanga, Vatsa and Mahisa (Jabalpur). Manu attributes a special purity to cotton.

It prescribes that a Brahman’s sacrificial thread should be made of cotton, that of a Kshatriya of flax and that of a Vaisya of wool. Acharanga Sutra (1 st century AD) mentions various types of cotton: blue cotton, common cotton, Bengal cotton etc. The most important centers of cotton production were Bengal, Varanasi, Gujarat and Gandhara. From Ujjaini and Tagara, considerable quantities of cotton were exported to Arabia, Socotra and Egypt. 

A large number of Roman coins found in the cotton growing areas show that the Roman empire was the biggest market of Indian cotton. Similarly wool (urna) was produced in the north-western Frontier areas, Punjab and present day Uttaranchal. Uddiyan (Swat) was an important wool making centre.

The ivory work, glass manufacture and bead making, coin-minting etc. were some other craftes which developed during this period. The manufacture of oil increased because of the use of the oil wheel (tailikachakra) mentioned in the Divyavadana. In inscriptions from the western Deccan, Sanchi, Bharhut, Mathura and Bodh Gaya, weavers, goldsmiths, smiths and perfumers (gandhika) figure as donors of caves, pillars, tablets, cisterns, etc. to the Buddhist monks. 

The existence of merchant donors shows that they had prospered from the thriving trade. One important consequence of this prosperity was that the guilds, although continuing form the Mauryan period, became an important factor in urban life including organization of production. More importantly, in post Mauryan times we get the earliest epigraphic testimony regarding the existence of the guilds of artisans who organized under their headman. 

This guild system seems to have loosened the control of state over the industrial life of the country, though state was expected to keep a watch over the condition of craftsmen. For the organisation, importance and functions of guilds, we are mainly dependent upon the Jataka stories because no other source deals with early Indian guilds so vividly as these stories do.

It is obvious from the Jatakas that there was considerable localization of trade and industry and different occupations became highly specialized. Along with the economic changes, the new ideas brought by the heterodox faiths helped the growth of guilds. These guilds in their turn patronized the heterodox faiths. These faiths ultimately tended to increase their power, authority and status in the society.

With the hereditary character of the different professions, consequent specialization, the localization of industries and the institution of the Jetthaka (head), these corporate organizations have been compared with the guilds of the middle Ages of the West. From the Jatakas it seems that there were 18 kinds of guilds. Of them only four are specified – the wood-workers, the smiths, the leather dressers and the painters. 

Because of the localization of industries, places were named after different kinds of craftsmen – Ivory carvers’ street, carpenters’ village, and potters’ village. Excavations in Karimnagar have actually shown the existence of such practice. The influence of the guilds is also known from the fact that the king is advised to borrow money from them in time of emergency. Manu and Yagnavalkya prescribe that the state should honor and preserve the laws of the guilds. The guild officers were held in high esteem and in legal proceedings, their evidence carried weight. 

A few inscriptions of the early Christian era show that guilds sometimes performed public functions as well. Large deposits were left with these institutions to act as trusts and bankers. In the Nasik cave inscription we find that Usavadatta, son-in-law of the Shaka chief Nahapana, made an endowment of money to support twenty monks. 

2000 karsapanas were deposited with a weavers’ guild at Govardhana, at the rate of 12% interest to provide clothes for these monks. 1000 karsapanas were deposited with another guild at the same place to provide for minor expenses of the same monks. The inscription also recorded that the transaction had been registered at the nigamasabha according to the custom. 

Another Nasik inscription records endowments of money deposited with several guilds at Govardhana by a lay devotee. These guilds were of kularikas (potters), odayantrikas (makers of water-machines) and of oil-pressers. From one inscription we learn of a guild of corn dealers making a gift of a seven-celled cave and a cistern. 

At Sanchi the guild of ivory carvers dedicated one of the piers of southern gate. In the post-Mauryan period even minor crafts started organizing srenis, for example guilds of bamboo-workers, braziers and flour makers. Some of the guilds had their own seals and emblems. Such seals have been found at Basarh. 

These guilds functioned as administrators of their trades. This included fixing the rules of work, quality of the product and their prices. They also, at times, controlled the personal matters of the guild members, and the customary usage of the guild (sreni-dharma) had a force of law. This is also known as samvitpatra (Narada) or sthitipatra (Katyayana).

By

Shabeer Mon.M, Asst. Poressor , Kerala. please write at shabeerm4u@gmail.com

An entire group of Vedic ‘experts’ have stood up to prove that Vedas contain early man theories and are not compatible with modern discoveries. These include communist historians propelled by  commentaries on Vedas by western ideologists like Max Muller, Griffith et al and a new breed of intellectuals who initiate all research with assumption that ‘old means defective’. 

However in modern era of religious marketing, another group has come up which would go to any length to discover scientific errors in Vedas. This is the group which would want 800 million Hindus to lose faith in Vedas and their religion and embrace what they believe is the final message of God. 

Yes I am referring to Islamic and Christian evangelists. 

While both these groups of evangelists are propelled by vision of making everyone in world a follower of their respective Holy Books, the situation is even more desperate for Quran zealots. This is because a bulk of Islamic evangelists believes that Jesus will come again towards end of the world after which they would reach Paradise forever. And an important sign of Jesus’ coming is conquest of India. I do not know the original source of this superstition, but this remains a primary motivator for most Islamic evangelists today.

Thus every now and then, we would see references to ‘Scientific Errors in Vedas’. The typical pattern would be English translation of some mantra followed by a Veda Mantra reference. For example

“Earth is flat” – Yajur Ved 32.8″. 

Often the reference and English translation are both pointing to sources best known to authors of these works. But for layman, these create a lot of confusion and doubt over relevance of Vedas. While I would shy away from thrusting my personal faith on Vedas, I would like to provide some excerpts from Vedas that provide clues to deep scientific concepts hidden within them. 

Unfortunately, due to thousand years of slavery, burning of our universities and libraries by barbarians and then demands for tackling issues of survival first, there remains a lot of work to be done to rediscover the Vedic sciences. However, sufficient clues exist to justify why this rediscovery would be worthwhile. In this article, I shall provide some brief snippets of such clues.

A point of note: Vedas not being dogmatic in nature and containing eternal truths do not try to spoon-feed us. Thus Vedas would contain seeds for all forms of knowledge and would urge humans to explore further. Because in the Vedic framework, it’s our efforts that can provide us bliss. 

MOTION OF EARTH 

Rig Veda 10.22.14 

“This earth is devoid of hands and legs, yet it moves ahead. All the objects over the earth also move with it. It moves around the sun.

In this mantra,

Kshaa = Earth (refer Nigantu 1.1)

Ahastaa = without hands

Apadee = without legs

Vardhat = moves ahead

Shushnam Pari = Around the sun

Pradakshinit = revolves 

Rig Veda 10.149.1 

“The sun has tied Earth and other planets through attraction and moves them around itself as if a trainer moves newly trained horses around itself holding their reins.”

In this mantra, 

Savita = Sun

Yantraih = through reins

Prithiveem = Earth

Aramnaat = Ties

Dyaam Andahat = Other planets in sky as well

Atoorte = Unbreakable

Baddham = Holds

Ashwam Iv Adhukshat = Like horses 

GRAVITATIONAL FORCE 

Rig Veda 8.12.28 

“O Indra! by putting forth your mighty rays, which possess the qualities of gravitation and attraction-illumination and motion – keep up the netire universe in order through the Power of your attraction.”

Rig Veda 1.6.5, Rig Veda 8.12.30. 

“O God, You have created this Sun. You possess infinite power. You are upholding the sun and other spheres and render them steadfast by your power of attraction. 

Yajur Veda 33.43 

“The sun moves in its own orbit in space taking along with itself the mortal bodies like earth through force of attraction.”

 Rig Veda 1.35.9 

“The sun moves in its own orbit but holding earth and other heavenly bodies in a manner that they do not collide with each other through force of attraction. 

Rig Veda 1.164.13 

“Sun moves in its orbit which itself is moving. Earth and other bodies move around sun due to force of attraction, because sun is heavier than them. 

Atharva Veda 4.11.1

“The sun has held the earth and other planets” 

LIGHT OF MOON 

Rig Veda 1.84.15 

“The moving moon always receives a ray of light from sun” 

Rig Veda 10.85.9 

“Moon decided to marry. Day and Night attended its wedding. And sun gifted his daughter “Sun ray” to Moon.” 

ECLIPSE

 Rig Veda 5.40.5 

“O Sun! When you are blocked by the one whom you gifted your own light (moon), and then earth gets scared by sudden darkness.” 

“SCIENCE OF BUILDING SHIPS AND AIRPLANES”: 

Swami Dayanand has detailed Mantras regarding these in his Vedic commentary and Introduction to Vedas” (1876). The scientists of IISc concluded that the mechanism of airplane as suggested by Dayanand is feasible. The first manned plane was built 20 years after death of Swami Dayanand.

The verses are difficult to translate in English here, but readers are advised to review “Introduction to Vedas” by Swami Dayanand or interpretations of following mantras: Rig Veda 1.116.3, 1.116.4, 10.62.1, 1.116.5, 1.116.6, 1.34.2, 1.34.7, 1.48.8 etc. 

SCIENCE OF TELEGRAPHY 

Rig Veda 1.119.10 

“With the help of bipolar forces (Aswins), you should employ telegraphic apparatus made of good conductor of electricity. It is necessary for efficient military operations but should be used with caution.”

I am also attaching a few pdfs of the scientific advancements of ancient India. These are developed by Indian Institute of Scientific Heritage. 

I hope this would be sufficient to at least drive the need for further exploration of our scientific heritage originating from Vedas.

Scientific and Technological Heritage, we claim these are Indian discoveries… 

SURPRISING IDEAS IN THE VEDIC TEXTS 

 It was Herodotus who first spoke of the idea of the wonders of the ancient world. He was, of course, talking only of monumental art. There is a list of the wonders from the Greek world that was compiled in the Middle Ages. This list has the great pyramid of Giza, the hanging gardens of Babylon, the statue of Zeus at Olympia, the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the mausoleum at Halicarnassus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the lighthouse of Alexandria. Only one of these seven survives.  

There are other lists too that are not Greek-centric. We have marvels of art and architecture from China, Mexico, Europe, Peru, Iran, India, Indonesia, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, and other countries. Not all of these marvels are in a good state of repair. Some are under the threat of destruction. Three of the most magnificent creations were lost in Afghanistan just recently.  

 But here I don’t wish to speak of wonders of stone and metal. Rather, I wish to propose a list of the ‘Seven Wonders of the Ancient Mind’. These are revolutionary and astonishing ideas that have had a lasting influence on the world. Not surprisingly, it is hard for us to place these ideas in context. For most of them, we cannot name the originator.  

Such lists are subjective, and mine is no exception. I had to leave out many obviously impressive ideas, such as airplanes, space travel, weapons that can destroy the world, embryo transplantation, multiple babies from the same embryo, space travel, and so on–from just the Mahabharata and the Puranas. (Lest I be misunderstood, we are not speaking of real planes, bombs, and biotechnology, but rather of the conception of their possibility.)  

The ideas that I chose are perhaps more fundamental than those above that I left out. Ultimately, I used the criterion of not just originality, but continuing relevance and sheer improbability of the thought of it in the ancient world.     

Here’s my list of the seven most astonishing ideas: 

1. An Extremely Old Universe: 

The idea that the universe is very old is quite startling, when one notes that humanity’s collective memory doesn’t go further than a few thousand years. The universe is taken to go through cycles of creation and destruction. This conception also assumes infinite number of solar systems. 

2. An Atomic World and the Subject/Object Dichotomy: 

According to the atomic doctrine of Kanada, there are nine classes of substances: ether, space, and time that are continuous; four elementary substances (or particles) called earth, air, water, and fire that are atomic; and two kinds of mind, one omnipresent and another which is the individual. This system also postulates a subject/object dichotomy, which is a part of the systems of Sankhya and Vedanta as well. In these systems, the conscious subject is separate from the material reality but he is, nevertheless, able to direct its evolution. The atomic doctrine of Kanada is much more interesting than that of Democritus. It is the recognition of the subject/object dichotomy that led to the creation of modern physics. 

3. Relativity of Time and Space: 

That space and time need not flow at the same rate for different observers is a pretty revolutionary notion. We encounter it in Puranic stories and in the Yoga Vasishtha. Obviously, we are not speaking here of the mathematical theory of relativity related to an upper limit to the speed of light, yet the consideration of time acting different to different observers is quite remarkable. To see the significance of this idea a couple of thousand years ago, note that modern relativity theory was forced upon scientists a hundred years ago by certain equations related to the transmission of electromagnetic waves. Here’s a passage on anomalous flow of time from the Bhagavata Purana: “Taking his own daughter, Revati, Kakudmi went to Lord Brahma in Brahmaloka, and inquired about a husband for her. When Kakudmi arrived there, Lord Brahma was engaged in hearing musical performances by the Gandharvas and had not a moment to talk with him. Therefore Kakudmi waited, and at the end of the performance he saluted Lord Brahma and made his desire known. After hearing his words, Lord Brahma laughed loudly and said to Kakudmi, ‘O King, all those whom you may have decided within the core of your heart to accept as your son-in-law have passed away in the course of time. Twenty-seven chaturyugas have already passed. Those upon whom you may have decided are now gone, and so are their sons, grandsons and other descendants. You cannot even hear about their names.’” 

 There are other stories, less dramatic, where an observer returns from a journey to another loka, and finds that people he loves have aged many more decades than he has. 

4. Evolution of Life: 

The Puranas have a chapter on creation and the rise of mankind. It is said that man arose at the end of a chain where the beginning was with plants and various kind of animals. Here’s the quote from the Yoga Vasishtha: “I remember that once upon a time there was nothing on this earth, neither trees and plants, nor even mountains. For a period of eleven thousand years the earth was covered by lava. In those days there was neither day nor night below the polar region: for in the rest of the earth neither the sun nor the moon shone. Only one half of the polar region was illumined. Apart from the polar region the rest of the earth was covered with water. And then for a very long time the whole earth was covered with forests, except the polar region. Then there arose great mountains, but without any human inhabitants. For a period of ten thousand years the earth was covered with the corpses of the asuras who roamed the world.”  

Vedic evolution is not at variance with Darwinian evolution but it has a different focus. The urge to evolve into higher forms is taken to be inherent in nature. A system of an evolution from inanimate to progressively higher life is clearly spelled out in the system of Sankhya. At the traditional level this is represented by an ascent of Vishnu through the forms of fish, tortoise, boar, man-lion, the dwarf, finally into man. Aurobindo has argued that this evolution of intelligence is still at work.  

5. A Science of Mind, Yoga: 

Yoga psychology, described in the Vedic books and systematized by Patanjali in his Yoga-sutras is a very sophisticated description of the nature of the human mind and its capacity. It makes a distinction between memory, states of awareness, and the fundamental entity of consciousness. It puts the analytical searchlight on mind processes, and it does so with such clarity and originality that it continues to influence people all over the world. Several kinds of yoga are described. They provide a means of mastering the body-mind connection. Indian music and dance also has an underlying yogic basis. 

6. Binary Number System, Zero: 

A Binary number system was used by Pingala (450 BC, if we accept the tradition that he was Panini’s brother) to represent meters of songs. The structure of this number system may have helped in the invention of the sign for Zero that, I believe, took place around 50 BC – 50 AD. Without the binary system, the development of computers would be much harder; and without a sign for zero, mathematics would have languished. It is of course true that the binary number system was independently invented by Leibnitz in 1678, but the fact that the rediscovery had to wait almost 2,000 years only emphasizes the originality of Pingala’s idea. 

7. A Complete Grammar, Limitation of Language: 

The Ashtadhyayi is a grammar of the Sanskrit language by Dakshiputra Panini (450 BC) that describes the entire language in 4,000 algebraic rules. The structure of this grammar contains a meta-language, meta-rules, and other technical devices that make this system effectively equivalent to the most powerful computing machine. No grammar of similar power has yet been constructed for any other language since. The famous American scholar Leonard Bloomfield called Panini’s achievement as “one of the greatest monuments of human intelligence.” 

The other side to the discovery of this grammar is the idea that language (as a formal system) cannot describe reality completely. This limitation of language, the rishis tell us, is why the Truth can only be experienced and never described fully! 

VEDANTA AND PHYSICS: 

Let me now talk of a savant who followed Vedic ideas and was inspired enough to create a modern theory that has transformed the world. I have in mind the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger, who was arguably one of the two greatest scientists of the 20th century. If Albert Einstein is celebrated for his creation of the theory of relativity, Erwin Schrödinger is equally famous for his creation of Quantum mechanics, the deepest theory at the basis of outer reality. Quantum mechanics went so far beyond the already radical framework of relativity that Einstein refused to accept it to his last day. Without quantum theory, advances in chemistry and electronics that are the foundation of modern technology would have been impossible. 

It is a fact that the great European scientists have searched for truth by first abandoning the narrow theologies of the religion into which they were born. But for Schrödinger, Vedic ideas provided the very foundation for his uncompromising search for meaning.  

It is not generally known that before he created quantum mechanics he expressed his intention to give form to central ideas of Vedanta which, therefore, has had a role in the birth of quantum mechanics. In 1925, before his revolutionary theory was complete, Erwin Schrödinger wrote: 

This life of yours which you are living is not merely a piece of this entire existence, but in a certain sense the “whole”; only this whole is not so constituted that it can be surveyed in one single glance. This, as we know, is what the Brahmins express in that sacred, mystic formula which is yet really so simple and so clear: tat tvam asi, this is you. Or, again, in such words as “I am in the east and the west, I am above and below, I am this entire world.” 

 Schrödinger’s influential What is Life?(1944) also used Vedic ideas. The book became instantly famous although it was criticized by some for its emphasis on Indian ideas. Francis Crick, the co-discoverer of the DNA code, credited this book for key insights that led him to his revolutionary discovery. According to his biographer Walter Moore, there is a clear continuity between Schrödinger’s understanding of Vedanta and his research: 

The unity and continuity of Vedanta are reflected in the unity and continuity of wave mechanics. In 1925, the world view of physics was a model of a great machine composed of separable interacting material particles. During the next few years, Schrödinger and Heisenberg and their followers created a universe based on superimposed inseparable waves of probability amplitudes. This new view would be entirely consistent with the Vedantic concept of All in One. 

Schrödinger was born on August 12, 1887. He became a Vedantist, a Hindu, as a result of his studies in his search for truth. He kept a copy of the Hindu scriptures at his bedside. He read books onVedas, yoga, and Sankhya philosophy, and he reworked them into his own words, and ultimately came to believe them. The Upanishads and theBhagavad-gita were his favorite scriptures. 

According to his biographer Moore, “His system–or that of the Upanishads–is delightful and consistent: the self and the world are one and they are all. He rejected traditional western religious beliefs (Jewish, Christian, and Islamic) not on the basis of any reasoned argument, nor even with an expression of emotional antipathy, for he loved to use religious expressions and metaphors, but simply by saying that they are naive.” 

Schrödinger was a professor at several universities in Europe. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1933. During the Hitler era he was dismissed from his position for his opposition to the Nazi ideas and he fled to England. For some years he was in Ireland, but after the conclusion of World War II he returned to Vienna where he died in 1961.  

Quantum mechanics goes beyond ordinary logic. According to it reality is a superposition of all possibilities which restates Vedic ideas. It is quantum mechanics which explains the mysteries of chemical reactions and of life. In recent years, it has been suggested that the secrets of consciousness have a quantum basis.  

In a famous essay on determinism and free will, he expressed very clearly the sense that consciousness is a unity, arguing that this “insight is not new… From the early great Upanishads the recognition Atman = Brahman (the personal self equals the omnipresent, all-comprehending eternal self) was in Indian thought considered, far from being blasphemous, to represent the quintessence of deepest insight into the happenings of the world. The striving of all the scholars of Vedanta was, after having learnt to pronounce with their lips, really to assimilate in their minds this grandest of all thoughts.” 

 He considered the idea of pluralization of consciousness and the notion of many souls to be naive. He considered the notion of plurality to be a result of deception (maya): “the same illusion is produced by a gallery of mirrors, and in the same way Gaurisankar and Mt. Everest turned out to be the same peak seen from different valleys.” 

 Schrödinger’s ideas continue to be fundamental in a variety of new fields. The wonders of modern science, such as electronics, biology, chemistry, wouldn’t have been possible without the insights of quantum theory. The possibilities inherent in quantum theory have not all been realized. Schrödinger remains one of the most discussed figures in modern scientific thought. His ideas will continue to inspire science.  

Schrödinger was a very complex person. But he had a sense of humor and paradox. He called his dog Atman. Perhaps he did this to honour Yudhishthira whose own dog, an incarnation of cosmic justice (Dharma), accompanied him on his last march to the Himalayas. More likely, he was calling attention to the unity that pervades the web of life.  

EVOLUTION AND RELIGION 

The West has seen a Cold War between science and religion going back to Charles Darwin. His subversive thought that man evolved out of apes had a chilling effect on religion; it freed science from the meddling by church, giving birth to the modern age. Western religion has retreated from one defensive position to another. After a few decades it conceded that animals may have evolved, insisting man was special. By now that the idea of the Garden of Eden with Adam and Eve has been discarded, the fight has shifted from the creation of man to whether God created the first life. The church is certain that life couldn’t have arisen without an intelligent designer.  

In the West, evolution theory has led to a loss of the traditional religious belief. If nature could be explained naturalistically, then there is no place for an anthropomorphic God. The church having retired from the academic debate, the main fight in the academy is between those who believe that biology can determine human behavior to a great degree and others who claim that for man biology stands superseded by the world of culture, with its own laws of interaction and evolution. 

Western and Indian thought are divided on the argument for design. In the West, thinkers from Aquinas to Newton maintain that nature manifests the design of a preexistent mind or the Creator. This idea helps to define the Westerner’s personal sense of purpose and meaning.  

In Indian thought, there is no separation between the Creator (the preexistent mind) and the universe. Consciousness is taken to be the fundamental characteristic of reality out of which material nature and individual minds emerge. Laws govern physical processes, but individuals remain free.  

Evolution is basic to this view. Life is seen to have evolved over millions of years in a manner that makes the cell mirror the cosmos. This is expressed in the famous sentence: yat pinde tad brahmande, ‘as in the cell so in the universe’.

From Consciousness arises matter (prakriti), and matter evolves as the balance between its three attributes (gunas) called sattva, rajas and tamas changes. This is the principle of Vedic evolution as given in Kapila’s Sankhya darshan. Even mind evolves out of matter. The evolutionary sequence goes through many levels. There exist tattvas (principles) that lead to the emergence of life out of inert matter. These tattvas, which include the various sensory and motor capacities, are latent in matter. The chain of sensory organ adaptations may be seen amongst the animals. 

 The gunas are not to be taken as abstract principles alone. Indian thought believes that structure in nature is recursive, and the gunas show up in various forms at different levels of expression. For example, at the cellular level, the genetic informational flow is sattva, the metabolic activity israjas, and the membrane that provides identity to the cell is tamas.  

 Texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas speak of evolution of life at many places. Earth is not considered unique regarding life. We are told that there exist countless planetary worlds, which go through cycles of evolution and decline. Hindu cosmology speaks of recursive cycles of creation and destruction. 

The texts imply that ingredients for the growth of life are available throughout the universe. Infinite numbers of universes are conceived, so as a new one is created like a bubble in an ocean of bubbles, life elements from other existing universes migrate and at a suitable time lead to larger life forms. This idea supports the notion of an extra-terrestrial source of life on Earth. (On September 28, 1969, a meteorite fell over Murchison, Australia. Analysis of the meteorite revealed that it was rich with amino acids. The Murchison meteorite shows that the Earth may have acquired some of its amino acids and other organic compounds from outer space.)  

The story of Vishnu’s avataras is seen by some to represent evolution through the stages of fish, tortoise, boar, man-lion, dwarf, Rama the axe-man, Rama (the ethical man), Krishna (the spiritual man). 

The Indic idea of structure showing up at different levels may be seen in the parallels between biological and linguistic evolution. Their analogies may be divided into four principal types. In historical and comparative linguistics, species with individuals capable of interbreeding are compared to the mutually comprehensible speakers of a language. In the study of animal behavior, genes coding for physical and behavioral traits are compared to fragments of culture capable of transmission and expression. In evolutionary epistemology or history of ideas, competing scientific concepts are compared to interacting organisms in an environment in an intellectual ecology. Finally, there is an analogy between the processes in living cells and processes in the brains of persons. Each cell listens to and comprehends its own DNA speech stream; likewise, the human language helps to generate and maintain a stable network if mental reactions (mental metabolism) by means of the ongoing inner dialogue.  

DRIVING FORCES IN EVOLUTION 

The idea of evolution was originally taken to be a linear, ladder-climbing ascent from simple life to humans. Darwin assumed blended inheritance, in which if an organism inherits certain factors, A and B, from its parents, it passes a factor which is a blending of A and B to its offspring. But evolution cannot proceed with such a theory: the variation needed for evolution disappears rapidly as it is blended out of existence. 

The next advance was provided by the Mendelian theory of heredity where the organism preserves the inheritance from the father and the mother, without blending it. The idea of such non-blending genetic inheritance is also in the Garbha Upanishad. 

Mendelian ideas combined with Darwinian ideas provide a synthetic theory of evolution that has been called neo-Darwinism. In this theory, although mutation is recognized as the ultimate source of genetic variation, natural selection is given the dominant role in shaping the genetic make-up of populations and in the process of gene substitution.  

In the 1960s, Mitoo Kimura proposed that molecular evolution was mainly driven not by natural selection but by random drift among equally well-adapted sequence variants. This theory (neutral theory of molecular evolution) contends that a neutral drift is the cause of most of the evolutionary change at the molecular level; also, much of the variability within species is caused not by positive selection of advantageous alleles, or by balancing selection, but by random genetic drift of mutant alleles that are selectively neutral.  

Evidence supporting the neutral theory includes the discovery that synonymous base substitutions, which do not cause amino acid changes, almost always occur at much higher rate than no synonymous (amino acid altering) substitutions. Evolutionary base substitutions at introns also occur at a comparatively high rate. This is because the changes that are subjected to natural selection will include many that are deleterious and so unlikely to survive in later generations. 

In contrast to phenotypic evolution, molecular evolution is characterized by two outstanding features. First is the constancy of the rate, so that for each protein or gene region, the rate of amino acid or nucleotide substitution is approximately constant per site per year (giving rise to the molecular clock). The second is that functionally less important molecules, or portions of molecules, evolve faster than more important ones.  

Molecular evolution is like language change where grammatical markers and basic vocabulary changes much more slowly than the less basic vocabulary. It is providing new insights in biological evolution, and the molecular clock has been critical in helping reconstruct the history of life. Similarly, language evolution has helped in the understanding of ancient history.  

Vedic evolution theory is like the neutral theory. If the gene function is seen through the agency of the three gunas, then evolution has a net genetic drift towards higher intelligence. 

The tattvas are not discrete and their varying expression creates the diversity of life in and across leading different species. Each sensory and motor tattva is mapped into a corresponding organ.  

Schrödinger, in his What is Life?, was the one to suggest that an “a periodic crystal forms the hereditary substance,” inspiring Watson and Crick to search for this molecule (DNA). He also thought that the Sankhyan tattvas were the most plausible model for the evolution of the sensory organs. 

ALIENATION AND HEALTH 

The world is in a crisis, not only because of religious conflict, but also due to the corrosive effect of materialism on the human psyche. There is violence in the schools, despair and depression amongst the young, and the fear that globalization will be destructive to social well-being.  

In the midst of this, modern medicine is failing: not only because of the side-effects of drugs, but also because of the manner it creates drug dependency, so that most people are on one medication or other for stress, heart disease, cholesterol reduction, or pain. This has driven up the cost of health care so high that American companies are no longer competitive in the international marketplace, placing American prosperity at risk. 

Perhaps this is because modern medicine seeks to look only at the body, without thought for the mind. The linkages between the mind and body are becoming apparent to science as a result of new research. For example, it is now known that stress caused reduction in the immune function. But, in itself, this knowledge is not helpful in creating new therapies. One needs a paradigmatic shift that takes as the starting point the Vedic conception of mind and body as a single entity. 

Vedic science offers a vision of the world that is richer than that of materialist science, which it subsumes as a lower kind of knowledge. Unlike the Bible or the Koran, the Vedas are not in conflict with secular knowledge. They offer a way to obtain knowledge of the self that is essential for self-transformation, a knowledge that complements secular knowledge. 

The challenge is to translate the categories that describe the nature of consciousness in the Vedas and the later books into a contemporary idiom that makes them accessible to a wider audience. Meanwhile, personal sadhana on the Vedic path is a way to obtain wisdom and insight needed to navigate through the present times. 

VEDIC SCIENCE 

What our ancient heritage scriptures Vedas say about physical sciences, role of scientists (ashvinaus) and scientific temper, a brief note is given below. To get a feel of Vedic physical sciences, reference to a few hymns are given. 

The Sun never sets or rises and it is the earth, which rotates (Saam Ved 121). The gravitational effect of solar system makes the earth stable (R.V.1-103-2, 1-115-4 and 5- 81-2). 

The axle of the earth does not get rusted and the earth continues to revolve on its axle (R.V. 1-164-29). 

The science of Time and its subtle nature is described in (R.V.1-92-12 and 1-95-8). The need to study the properties of water, air and fire for discovering and manufacturing aircrafts, ships and other vehicles capable of moving in the firmament, land and water are mentioned in Rig Ved 1-3-1,2, 1-34-1, 1-140-1 and many other hymns. 

 Reference to infinite number of both gross and subtle atoms and the energy principle as spirit of God in each atom is given in R.V. 5-47-2 and Saam Ved 222. Atoms and sub atomic particles are not inert and have unsuspected vitality owing to this energy principle. 

Physical sciences relating to agriculture, medicine, astronomy mathematics particularly algebra, toxicology etc. are described in R.V.1-71-9, 4-57-5, Saam Ved 121 and many other hymns. 

In the Vedas scientists are described as men and women of absolute self-control, truthful with scientific outlook and destroyers of miseries (R.V., 1-3-4). 

With the help of these scientists one could travel far on the earth and also in the sky through conveyances, which run and touch the middle region (R.V. 1-3-1, 6-22-2 and 1-22-2). Such scientists from both the sexes go across to distance places quickly like the mind and electricity (R.V. 1-71-9). In this hymn aircrafts and even space ships are hinted. These ashvinaus should be well versed in Physics, agricultural sciences (R.V. 4-57-5), medical sciences (R.V. 5-74-3), astronomy (S.V. 121) and other sciences. 

Ashvinaus have been advised to learn thoroughly about Prakrti (divine Nature), characteristics and various qualities of water, air, fire, electricity and heat and sound energy. 

Other sciences mentioned are Toxicology and use of various kinds of medicines and drugs (R.V 1-191-14), science of Time (Kala vidya) that starts with dawn (Usha). R.V. 1-95-2, and 10, refers to use of time for mathematics. 

There is a mention of infrared rays, study of Algebra (Rekha di ganit vidya), sound as a medium of knowledge for various sciences, diseases like bile, cough, jaundice and others and their treatment etc. The relevant hymns in this regard are in Rig-Ved 1-185-2, 1-12-1, 2, 1-22-1 to 4, 1-2-3, 1- 95-1, 1-101-1 and many others. 

However, the greater emphasis is on the development of Scientific Temper amongst the members of Society with a view to curb spread of blind faith, hypocrisy, miracle and ostentatious worship of God. Thus the knowledge of Vedic sciences is meant to save the human beings from falling into an utter darkness as Isa Upanishad and the last chapter of Yajur Ved caution us. 

The unity in diversity is the message of Vedic physical and metaphysical sciences. While matter is the cause of diversity owing to three primordial subtle particles of purity, activity and passivity present in it, the spirit (jiva) provides the necessary unity. 

The Vedas combine science with metaphysics and clearly mention that it is God who is the giver of knowledge of all sciences as ‘Sahstra sam’ (R.V. 1-10-11). The scientists are advised to study cause and effect of all material elements and also how the objects are produced and there after utilize these properly (R.V. 5-47-3). 

By following these guidelines they can alleviate much suffering of the people (R.V. 5-77-4). Without the knowledge and practical application of physical sciences, it is not possible to eradicate poverty and attain prosperity (R.V. 1-34-1 to 5). 

Vedic Mathematics  

Vedic Mathematics is the name given to the ancient system of Indian Mathematics which was rediscovered from the Vedas between 1911 and 1918 by Sri Bharati Krsna Tirthaji (1884-1960). According to his research all of mathematics is based on sixteen Sutras, or word-formulae. For example, ‘Vertically and Crosswise` is one of these Sutras. These formulae describe the way the mind naturally works and are therefore a great help in directing the student to the appropriate method of solution.

Perhaps the most striking feature of the Vedic system is its coherence. Instead of a hotch-potch of unrelated techniques the whole system is beautifully interrelated and unified: the general multiplication method, for example, is easily reversed to allow one-line divisions and the simple squaring method can be reversed to give one-line square roots. And these are all easily understood. This unifying quality is very satisfying, it makes mathematics easy and enjoyable and encourages innovation. 

In the Vedic system ‘difficult’ problems or huge sums can often be solved immediately by the Vedic method. These striking and beautiful methods are just a part of a complete system of mathematics which is far more systematic than the modern ‘system’. Vedic Mathematics manifests the coherent and unified structure of mathematics and the methods are complementary, direct and easy.

The simplicity of Vedic Mathematics means that calculations can be carried out mentally (though the methods can also be written down). There are many advantages in using a flexible, mental system. Pupils can invent their own methods; they are not limited to the one ‘correct’ method. This leads to more creative, interested and intelligent pupils. 

Interest in the Vedic system is growing in education where mathematics teachers are looking for something better and finding the Vedic system is the answer. Research is being carried out in many areas including the effects of learning Vedic Maths on children; developing new, powerful but easy applications of the Vedic Sutras in geometry, calculus, computing etc. 

But the real beauty and effectiveness of Vedic Mathematics cannot be fully appreciated without actually practicing the system. One can then see that it is perhaps the most refined and efficient mathematical system possible.

By

Shabeer Mon.M, Asst. Poressor , Kerala. please write at shabeerm4u@gmail.com

Many Sikhs and Hindu Punjabis who tasted freedom outside colonial India in USA started Ghadr movement to free India from British rule in early 1900′s. These Sikhs and Punjabi Hindus were sent to Canada which was under British rule for labor work. They crossed the border over to USA and settled in Western Coast of USA in cities like Portland, San Francisco, San Jose and Los Angeles. These Punjabis created Gurdwaras and established societies. They were subject to draconian laws like “not allowed to marry to American woman” by many of these states at that time. The word Ghadr can be commonly translated as mutiny, was the name given to the newspaper edited and published for the Hindustani Association of the Pacific Coast which was founded at Portland, United States of America, in 1912. The movement this Association gave rise to for revolutionary activities in India also came to be known by the designation of Ghadr.

It is said that by 1908 about 5000 Indians had entered Canada. 99% of which were Punjabis and 90% Sikhs. Many Indians were also studying at various universities all over USA. Americans and few Indians established Indo-American National Association. Many students from prominent universities like Berkeley University, Stanford and Harvard joined this association. Lala Hardayal of Stanford University, Sant Teja Singh of Harvard University, and Bhai Parmanand decided to get more students belonging to the poor families for Higher education in the USA and Canada.

Indians who went to the United States and Canada came from rural farming middle class and labor, a large number of among them being ex-servicemen. In the beginning, the Indians went to San Francisco and Stockton in California, Portland and St. John in Oregon and Washington states and to Vancouver and Victoria in British Columbia n Canada. Such persons as Amar Singh and Gopal Singh who had gone to America in 1905, and Tarak Nath Das and Ram Nath Puri who followed them, starting preaching against the British rule in India. They also started a paper called Azadi ka circular in Urdu. This paper was distributed among the armed forces in India to rouse them against the British. Result was that Canadian government which was under British rule started harassing them. White labor was encouraged to harass foreign labor, while Chinese and Japanese government protested against these atrocities against their nationals, Indian government did nothing. The Canadian government further tightened the entry of Indians into Canada. It passed a legislation that newcomers would not be permitted to land on the Canadian soil “unless they came from the country of their birth or citizenship by a continuous journey, and on through tickets purchased before leaving the country of their birth or citizenship. They were also required to possess $200 against the previously fixed sum of $25.

In order to fight the unjust immigration laws, the Indians (mostly Sikhs) organized Khalsa Diwan Society in Vancouver in 1907 with branches in Victoria, Abbotsford, New Westminster, Fraser Hill, Duncan Coombs and Ocean falls. The Sikhs built a Gurdwara at Vancouver which was inaugurated in January 1908. In 1909 only 6 Indians were allowed to visit Canada. Same year Indian immigrants organized Hindustan Association under the president ship of Bhai Bhag Singh Bhikkivind. Its objectives were to establish Indian rule in India, provision of safeguards from loot by foreigners, etc. The association started two newspapers, Pardesi Khalsa in Punjabi and Swadesh Sevak in Urdu. These activities awakened the Indian immigrants. Persons like Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna, Harnam Singh Tundilat, Udham Singh Kasel, Rakha Ram, Ishar Singh Marhana and others would collect on Sundays and other holidays and ponder over the problems. St John and Seattle become center of their activities.

In 1912, at Portland Hindustani Association of Pacific coast was formed with Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna as its president and GD kumar as the general secretary, later Mr Kumar fell ill and his place was taken by Lala Hardyal. Aim of the party was explained as “Today, there begins in foreign lands.. a war against British raj.. What is your name? Ghadr. What is your work? Ghadr. Where will Ghadr break out? in India. The time will soon come when rifles and blood will take the place of pen and ink.” In simple words, their aim was to get rid of the British raj in India through an armed rebellion.

The first issue of the Ghadr, in Urdu, came out in November 1913 and that in Punjabi a weeks later. The paper was distributed to politico- Indian centers in United States, Canada, Philippines, Fiji, Sumatra, Japan, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Hankow, Java, Singapore, Malaysia, Burma, India and East Africa. Occasionally Ghadr published the following advertisement: 

Wanted: Enthusiastic and heroic soldiers for

organizing Ghadr in Hindustan:

Renumeration: Death

Reward : Martyrdom

Pension : Freedom

Field of work : Hindustan. 

The Ghadr party president often visited the Indian groups to exhort them to join freedom movement. Lala Hardyal general secretary was arrested on the pretext of a speech delivered by him three years earlier. Baba Sohna Singh now became the general secretary, Bhai Santokh Singh became President, editing of paper was taken over by Bhai Harnam singh of Kotla Naudh singh. The party’s plan was to invade Kashmir from China, then go for the Punjab followed by other provinces. The members started getting training in the use of weapons and making of bombs; several got training in flying aircraft also. One of them, Harnam singh, had his hand blown off while in process of bomb making and he was thence onwards known as Tundilat, the armless knight.

The party carried out considerable propaganda in Japan where Maulawi Barkat Ullah was professor in Tokyo University. His presence attracted many Muslims to Ghadr Party. The Kamagatu Maru incident added fuel to fire. The First World War broke out in July 1914. On 5 August, leading members of Ghadr party declared war on the British and decided to take advantage of the involvement of British in the war. The Ghadr party declared war on the British and decided to come to India to carry out armed revolution against the British.

Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna and his companions left for India on 22 August 1914, the first ship with 26 Indians left Vancouver; on 29 August, another ship with 60-70 Indians left San Francisco for India. According to government records, 2312 Indian Ghadr men had entered India between 13 October 1914 and 25 February 1915. Their influx continued till 1916 when their number increased to more than 8,000. But it is likely that the Ghadr men had entered India in greater numbers than the government knew. Government was very active and at least 50% of them were arrested or confined to their villages by state governments.

The Ghadr party established a new press and published small pamphlets such as: Ghadr Sandesh, Ailan-i-Jang, Tilak, Nadar Mauqa, Rikab~gan;, Canada da Duhhra, Naujavan Utho, Sachchz Pukar, and so on. These pamphlets were published in Punjabi, Urdu and Hindi, and were distributed among the public and the soldiers. The party also produced their own flag having red, yellow and green colors. Dr Mathura Singh supervised factories producing armaments.

The party members contacted students. They contacted soldiers stationed especially at Mian Mir (Lahore), Jalandhar, Firozpur, Peshawar, Jehlum, Rawalpindl, Mardan, Kohat, Bannu, Ambala, Meerut, Kanpur and Agra cantonments. The soldiers were generally in sympathy with the movement. Many party workers joined the army with a view to obtaining arms and ammunition. Contacts were also established with Bengal revolutionaries such as Rash Behari Bose whose close companions were Sachin Sanyal and Vishnu Ganesh Pingle. Pingle acted as a link between the Ghadr party and Bengalis.  The movement faced financial difficulties in India. The expenses had increased owing to opening of various branches, travelling, purchase of arms and ammunition and publications. Money was not easily available as it was in foreign countries. To overcome this difficulty, the party had to resort to forcible acquisition of funds by under-taking political dacoities.

All the preparations completed, the party executive met on 12 February 1915, and decided to start the rebellion on 21 February. Their plan was simultaneously to attack and capture Mian Mir and Firozpur cantonments; 128th Pioneer and 12 Cavalry were to capture Meerut Cantonment and then proceed to Delhi. Units in cantonments in northern 21 India were expected to join the rebellion.

The British Government had intelligence men posted at railway stations in cities and in important villages. The lambardars, zaildars and other village functionaries were also alerted to provide information. The government had managed to plant informers in the Ghadr party itself. Before the new leadership came forward and reorganized the movement’s plans, the British Government “knew much more about their designs and was in a better position to cope with them.” In spite of this, the Ghadrites in the central Punjab murdered policemen and informers and attempted to derail trains and blow up bridges. Factories for preparing bombs were established. All this made the government feel that they were “living over a mine full of explosives. “

When the party learnt that the information about the D-Day had leaked, they advanced the date of rebellion to 19 February, but this information also reached the police through their informer, Kirpal. The police raided the party headquarters at four different places in Lahore and arrested 13 of the “most dangerous revolutionaries.” All cantonments were alerted and the Indian troops placed under vigilance; some were even disarmed. Arrests of Ghadr men took place all over the Punjab. Rash Behari Bose, with the help of Kartar Singh Sarabha, escaped from Lahore to Varanasi: Vishnu Ganesh Pingle was arrested at Meerut on 23 March 1915. All the leaders were put in the Lahore jail.

The government of the Punjab sought and the Government of India passed under the Defence of India Act wide powers to the Punjab Government who formed a special tribunal of three judges, including one Indian, to try the Ghadr men in the Central Jail, Lahore. Thus the rebellion was smashed by the government before it had really taken shape.

The Ghadr men were tried by the Special Tribunal in what are known as Lahore conspiracy cases in batches. The trial of the first batch began on 26 April 1915. In all, 291 persons were tried and sentenced as under: death for 42, 114 were transported for life, 93 awarded varying terms of imprisonment, 42 were acquitted. Confiscation of property was ordered in the case of many. No one appealed against the punishments. Those who were hanged included Kartar Singh Sarabha, Jagat Singh (Sursingh) Vishnu Ganesh Pingle, Harnam Singh Sialkoti, Bakshish Singh (son of Ishar Singh), Bhai Balvant Singh (Khurdpur), Babu Ram, Harnam Singh, Hafiz Abdulla and Rur Singh (Sanghval).

Under the circumstances, the army units which had promised to join the revolution kept quiet. However, some units such as 26 Punjabi, 7 Rajput, 12 Cavalry, 23 Cavalry, 128 Pioneers, Malaya State Guides,23 Mountain Battery, 24Jat Artillery, 15 Cancers, 22 Mountain Battery,130 Baluch and 21 Punjabi did come out in the open. About 700 men of 5 Light Infantry located in Singapore, mutinied on 15 February and took possession of the fort. The rebellion was subdued by the British troops; 126 men were tried by court martial which sentenced 37 to death, 41 to transportation for life, and the remaining varying terms of imprisonment Soldiers from other units were punished as under:

Death Transportation

 23 Cavalry

 12 Cavalry

 130 Baluch

 128 Pioneers

 1 for life

The party workers also went to Iran and Iraq to instigate Indian troops against the British, and to Turkey to exhort Indian prisoners to fight for India’s freedom. In Iran, the party was able to raise an Indian Independence Army. The Army advanced towards Baluchistan, and en route captured Kirmanshah. Then they advanced along the coast towards Karachi. Meanwhile, Turkey was defeated and the British had occupied Baghdad. The Indian Independence Army thus losing its base was also defeated.

The Ghadr party contacted Germany, Turkey, Afghanistan, China and other countries, but not much help came from any of these. Germany sympathized with the Ghadr party and occasionally tried to render some help in the form of weapons and money, but these often failed to reach the party. For instance, 5,000 revolvers on board Heny S. which sailed from Manila were captured en route by the British. Germany had also formed an Oriental Bureau for translating and disseminating inflammatory literature to the Indian prisoners of war in Germany.

During World War I, revolutionaries from most countries had gone to Switzerland, which was a neutral country. The Indians there formed Indian Revolutionary Society, also known as Berlin-India Committee. The Society had formed a provisional government at Kabul, but had no contacts with the Indian public. The Ghadr party established links with the Society and both agreed to help each other. Germany sent financial help to the Society but, on learning that it was being misappropriated, discontinued it. The Society soon collapsed. No sum ever reached the Ghadr party. The Ghadr movement, as says O ‘Dwyer, “was by far the most serious attempt to subvert British rule in India.” Most of the workers were illiterate—only 25 of them knew Urdu or Punjabi. Still they organized a strong movement which for the time being thrilled the country and made the British panic. Although the movement was suppressed, it provided nucleus for the Akali movement that followed a few years later. The Ghadr leaders were especially prominent among the Babar Akalis.

Courtesy:Abhiyan-The Mission

My second vision forIndiais DEVELOPMENT. For fifty years we have been a developing Nation. It is time we see ourselves as a developed Nation. We are among top 5 nations of the world in terms of GDP. We have 10 percent growth rate in most areas. Our poverty levels are falling. Our achievements are being globally recognized today. Yet we lack the self-confidence to see ourselves as a developed nation, self-reliant and self-assured. Isn’t this incorrect? 

I have a THIRD vision. Indiamust stand up to the world. Because I believe that unless India stands up to the world, no one will respect us. Only strength respects strength. We must be strong not only as a military power but also as an economic power. Both must go hand-in-hand. My good fortune was to have worked with three great minds. Dr. Vikram Sarabhai of the Dept. of space, Professor Satish Dhawan, who succeeded him and Dr. Brahm Prakash, father of nuclear material. I was lucky to have worked with all three of them closely and consider this the great opportunity of my life. 

I see four milestones in my career: 

ONE: Twenty years I spent in ISRO. I was given the opportunity to be the project director forIndia’s first satellite launch vehicle, SLV3. The one that launched Rohini. These years played a very important role in my life of Scientist.

TWO: After my ISRO years, I joined DRDO and got a chance to be the part ofIndia’s missile program. It was my second bliss when Agni met its mission requirements in 1994.

THREE: The Dept. of Atomic Energy and DRDO had this tremendous partnership in the recent nuclear tests, on May 11 and 13. This was the third bliss. The joy of participating with my team in these nuclear tests and proving to the world that India can make it, that we are no longer a developing nation but one of them. It made me feel very proud as an Indian. The fact that we have now developed for Agni a re-entry structure, for which we have developed this new material. A Very light material called carbon-carbon. 

FOUR: One day an orthopedic surgeon from Nizam Institute of Medical Sciences visited my laboratory. He lifted the material and found it so light that he took me to his hospital and showed me his patients. There were these little girls and boys with heavy metallic calipers weighing over three kg. each, dragging their feet around. He said to me: Please remove the pain of my patients. In three weeks, we made these Floor reaction Orthosis 300 gram calipers and took them to the orthopedic center. The children didn’t believe their eyes. From dragging around a three kg. load on their legs, they could now move around! Their parents had tears in their eyes. That was my fourth bliss!

Why is the media here so negative? Why are we inIndia so embarrassed to recognize our own strengths, our achievements? We are such a great Nation. We have so many amazing success stories but we refuse to acknowledge them. Why? We are the first in milk production. We are number one in Remote sensing satellites. We are the second largest producer of wheat. We are the second largest producer of rice. Look at Dr. Sudarshan, he has transferred the tribal village into a self-sustaining, self-driving unit. There are millions of such achievements but our media is only obsessed in the bad news and failures and disasters. 

I was in Tel Aviv once and I was reading the Israeli newspaper. It was the day after a lot of attacks and bombardments and deaths had taken place. The Hamas had struck. But the front page of the newspaper had the picture of a Jewish gentleman who in five years had transformed his desert land into an orchid and a granary. It was this inspiring picture that everyone woke up to. The gory details of killings, bombardments, deaths, were inside in the newspaper, buried among other news. InIndiawe only read about death, sickness, terrorism, crime. Why are we so NEGATIVE? Another question: Why are we, as a nation so obsessed with foreign things? We want foreign TVs, we want foreign shirts. We want foreign technology. Why this obsession with everything imported. Do we not realize that self-respect comes with self-reliance? 

I was inHyderabadgiving this lecture, when a 14 year old girl asked me for my autograph. I asked her what her goal in life is: She replied: I want to live in a developedIndia. For her, you and I will have to build this developedIndia. You must proclaim.Indiais not an under-developed nation; it is a highly developed nation.

Allow me to come back with vengeance. Got 10 minutes for your country? YOU say that our government is inefficient. YOU say that our laws are too old. YOU say that the municipality does not pick up the garbage. YOU say that the phones don’t work, the railways are a joke, the airline is the worst in the world, mails never reach their destination. YOU say that our country has been fed to the dogs and is the absolute pits. YOU say, say and say.

What do YOU do about it? Take a person on his way toSingapore. Give him a name – YOURS. Give him a face – YOURS. YOU walk out of the airport and you are at your International best. InSingapore you don’t throw cigarette butts on the roads or eat in the stores. YOU are as proud of their Underground Links as they are. You pay $5 (approx. Rs. 60) to drive throughOrchard Road (equivalent of Mahim Causeway orPedder Road) between 5 PM and 8 PM. YOU come back to the parking lot to punch your parking ticket if you have over stayed in a restaurant or a shopping mall irrespective of your status identity. InSingapore you don’t say anything, DO YOU? YOU wouldn’t dare to eat in public during Ramadan, inDubai. YOU would not dare to go out without your head covered in Jeddah. YOU would not dare to buy an employee of the telephone exchange inLondon at 10 pounds (Rs. 650) a month to, “see to it that my STD and ISD calls are billed to someone else.” 

YOU would not dare to speed beyond 55 mph (88 kph) inWashingtonand then tell the traffic cop, “Jaanta hai sala main kaun hoon (Do you know who I am?). I am so and so’s son. Take your two bucks and get lost.” YOU wouldn’t chuck an empty coconut shell anywhere other than the garbage pail on the beaches inAustraliaandNew Zealand. Why don’t YOU spit Paan on the streets ofTokyo? Why don’t YOU use examination jockeys or buy fake certificates inBoston? We are still talking of the same YOU. YOU who can respect and conform to a foreign system in other countries but cannot in your own. You who will throw papers and cigarettes on the road the moment you touch Indian ground. If you can be an involved and appreciative citizen in an alien country why cannot you be the same here inIndia?

Once in an interview, the famous Ex-municipal commissioner of Bombay Mr.Tinaikar had a point to make. “Rich people’s dogs are walked on the streets to leave their affluent droppings all over the place,” he said. “And then the same people turn around to criticize and blame the authorities for inefficiency and dirty pavements. What do they expect the officers to do? Go down with a broom every time their dog feels the pressure in his bowels? InAmericaevery dog owner has to clean up after his pet has done the job. Same inJapan. Will the Indian citizen do that here?” He’s right. 

We go to the polls to choose a government and after that forfeit all responsibility. We sit back wanting to be pampered and expect the government to do everything for us whilst our contribution is totally negative. We expect the government to clean up but we are not going to stop chucking garbage all over the place nor are we going to stop to pick a up a stray piece of paper and throw it in the bin. We expect the railways to provide clean bathrooms but we are not going to learn the proper use of bathrooms. We want Indian Airlines and AirIndiato provide the best of food and toiletries but we are not going to stop pilfering at the least opportunity. This applies even to the staff who is known not to pass on the service to the public. 

When it comes to burning social issues like those related to women, dowry, girl child and others, we make loud drawing room protestations and continue to do the reverse at home. Our excuse? “It’s the whole system which has to change, how will it matter if I alone forego my sons’ rights to a dowry.” So who’s going to change the system? What does a system consist of? Very conveniently for us it consists of our neighbors, other households, other cities, other communities and the government. But definitely not me and YOU. When it comes to us actually making a positive contribution to the system we lock ourselves along with our families into a safe cocoon and look into the distance at countries far away and wait for a Mr. Clean to come along & work miracles for us with a majestic sweep of his hand. Or we leave the country and run away. Like lazy cowards hounded by our fears we run toAmericato bask in their glory and praise their system. WhenNew Yorkbecomes insecure we run toEngland. WhenEnglandexperiences unemployment, we take the next flight out to the Gulf. When the Gulf is war struck, we demand to be rescued and brought home by the Indian government. Everybody is out to abuse and rape the country. Nobody thinks of feeding the system. Our conscience is mortgaged to money.

Dear Indians, The article is highly thought inductive, calls for a great deal of introspection and pricks one’s conscience too….I am echoing J.F. Kennedy’s words to his fellow Americans to relate to Indians…..”ASK WHAT WE CAN DO FOR INDIA AND DO WHAT HAS TO BE DONE TO MAKE INDIA WHAT AMERICA AND OTHER WESTERN COUNTRIES ARE TODAY”. Lets do what India needs from us.

This is the perfect time when youth is alert and aware and provoked by the environment and lack of values. India is a nation facing incredible challenges. This is evident from the utter lack of safety and security for the girl child and women anywhere in the country and the impunity with which monstrous elements like rapists heap violence on girl children and women.

On the one hand, people can see such huge wealth and on the other, more than one-third of the people go without a second meal every day. We have examples of the very affluent as well as the extremely poor. And millions of our children have no access to education, even at the primary level. And we are still grappling with the issue of child labour.

Swami Vivekananda delivered a lecture on the issue of difficulties in life. He made the plea for the need for nationwide renovation with the ideals of ‘tyaga’ or sacrifice and ‘seva,’ selfless service, the most imperative aspects of shaping the life of young people. The monk made the point that this way of life is what can be called ‘spiritual pursuit’. The brevity of human triumph and the impermanence of material wealth were of serious thought to this philosophy. What he challenged us to do was to give ourselves a noble reason to live, a lofty ideal to live for and a higher state to reach within the boundaries of human existence.

The only qualification that Swamiji looked for in youngsters was to cultivate and nurture the ability to ‘feel’. He offered his potential ‘mantra’ and desired to take solid action so that those who wanted to go beyond just feeling could do so. The most influential P’s are: Purity, Patience and Perseverance. The P’s are the great traits that the youth of today are rich in and this is evident from their keenness to be part of positive change that will have impact on entire society.

Purity is of thought and achievement. Patience is to understand the dynamic form and need to focus on the area for improvement. Today’s youth needs enormous perseverance to take part in the multifaceted challenges we face in today’s society. They need to place their efforts in the realities of livelihood, societal stages and political variety. And for these attempts to seriously address socio-political and ethical-moral issues, they need great perseverance. If not, one could easily get drained and unmotivated.

Swami Vivekananda believed that working for any social change required massive energy and spirit. Hence, he requested the youth to amplify both their mental energies and physical fitness. What Vivekananda wanted from the youth were ‘muscles of iron’ and ‘nerves of steel’. Today, the youth are exceptionally responsive and they just need to be encouraged in their quest for justice for common benefit. Swami Vivekananda was and is not only the medium; he is himself the message as well for the youth of India.

By Mithun Dey

• Understand the core issue – Be absolutely clear about what the problem is. Engage with your child to dig as much deep as possible. Be sure if there is any action on the part of yourself or the child that needs to be addressed to solve the concern. Try that out first till you are really sure that it is on the school’s side that the action is required.
•  Talk to parents of fellow students – See if this is generic problem faced by other students as well or is it more specific to something not working out for your child at this particular school. This can be important input into your further steps and communication with the school.
• Engage with the school – Once you have figured out the problem, meet the class teacher and share your thoughts/concerns with her. If the problem is specific to the class teacher, you might want to engage with one level up sooner. Make sure that the teacher understands your concern and shows willingness & commitment to solve the same. Discuss on the next steps and rough time estimates when you expect the things to be back on track. Wait for the agreed period and monitor closely. In case things don’t get better, raise it up to principal level.
• Before giving up – Before giving up and starting to look out for another school, re-confirm your understanding of the issue and ensure that you have given enough time to the school to show the improvement if willing. A slight impatience can cost you considerable efforts going forward.
• But don’t delay too much – However, if things don’t work out, you don’t have to have your child live through this problem for ever. Changing school is always an option, possibly a better one. Shake off your inertia and exercise this option for the future of your child.
• Do homework and gain confidence – But last thing you want is to end up having the same problem at other school as well. So do even more homework this time in selecting the next school, have detailed discussion with school representative on your expectations to ensure it is right match, gain reasonable confidence that the issue with the previous school will not be repeated here and that you are not losing out on any major advantages of the previous school.

The change of school can be of significant impact to your child. More so, if he had spent good number of years in the previous school or had made good friends or had been emotionally attached to anything specific. So you should ensure that you manage this transition very diligently. Based on the age and maturity level – bringing him on-board in making this decision, explaining the immediate and long term benefits, setting right expectations (both positive and preparing for little bumpy ride till settled) and daily conversation on how is it going at new school can help.