For instance, ‘Pitri, Sanskrit for Father, and ‘Pater’, Latin for Father sound similar, and so does ‘Matri’ and ‘Mater’ for Mother. 

Max Mueller therefore concluded that the ancestors of the Indians, the Greeks, the Romans, the English and some other peoples must have originally resided at a common place. 

The Austro-Hungarian theory, propounded by Di Giles and Prof. Macdonell, considers the banks of the Danube River (south-east Europe) to have been the original home of the Aryans. 

Putting forward the Sapta-Sindhu theory, many Indian historians, including Dr Sampurnanand and Avinash Chandra Dass, point out that the modern Punjab and Sindh region (or Sapta-Sindhu) was where the Aryans originated. The view is based on a study of geographical features mentioned in the hymns of the Rigveda. 

From the description of certain natural phenomena, such as long evenings, days and nights of six months’ duration, etc., in the Rigveda, Lokmanya Tilak came to the conclusion that the original home of the Aryans was in the regions near the North Pole. 

He reached this view after a close study of several ancient books such as the Zend Avesta apart from the Rigveda. 

Swami Dayananda wrote in the Satyartha Prakash that the original home of the Aryans was Tibet. As their population grew they could not continue to stay in Tibet and thus migrated towards India. His view is support by F.E. Pargiter. 

Large-scale migration or an invasion. Again, there is nothing Aryan’ about any particular type of pottery, nor is there any ethnic or racial significance. 

As regards the earlier belief (supported by Rigveda hymns calling upon Indra to destroy the dwellers of forts) that the Aryans destroyed the Harappans by razing to ground their cities and towns, there is no archaeological evidence to prove it. 

There is no evidence to show that the Harappan civilization was destroyed by an alien invasion. Likewise, if the PGW had been a product of Aryan craftsmanship, it should have been found in the areas of Bahawalpur and Punjab, the supposed route of the so-called Aryan invaders. 

However, these pottery types are found in a region far from there in Haryana, the upper Ganga basin and in eastern Rajasthan. 

Also, there is no basis to believe that there exists a time gap leading to cultural discontinuity between the late-Harappan and the post-Harappan Chalcolithic periods. 

Recent excavations at Bhagwanpura and Dadheri in Haryana and Manda (Jammu) have shown that the late Harappan and the PGW were found together without any break. So, on the basis of archaeological evidence, invasion is not an acceptable theory. 

After 1750 BC the urban features of the Harappan civilization, its towns and cities along with its scales, weights and measures, the things related to trade and urbanization-all these vanished.

There was no change in the rural structure of the earlier period, it continued into the second and the first millennium BC. 

The differences observed in the archaeological find, in the pottery, metal objects and other items are possibly due to, and may be a representation of, the variations in Indian Chalcolithic cultures.

Thus, the archaeological evidences relating to the period between the second and first millennium BC have helped in modifying the earlier views on the Vedic “Aryans”: (i) there is no archaeological evidence supporting the view that there was large scale migration from West Asia into the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BC; (ii) there is no archaeo­logical proof that the Aryans destroyed the Harappan civilization and laid the foundation of a new Indian civilization. 

In fact, even though the Rigveda refers repeatedly to wars between different groups, these fights are not evidenced in archaeological finds. 

What is most likely to have happened is as follows. With the decline of the cities of the Indus Civilization and the administrative system, the emphasis must have moved over to rural settlements. It was probably in this period-mid-second millen­nium BC-which the Indo-Aryan speakers entered the north-west of India from the Indo-Iranian border­lands through the passes in the mountains. But they came in small groups, not in a large scale migration. Such small-scale migrations would not have been noticeably disruptive, and might have followed earlier pastoral routes. The Avesta does refer to repeated migrations from lands in Iran to the Indus region in search of pastureland.

By

Shabeer

● The script of Indus civilization was pictorial in which there were more than 600 picture-letters and 60 original letters.

● The excavations of Chanhudaro were carried out in 1925 under the leadership of Earnest M’ckay. This town had no fort.

● Naal, Daburkot, Rakhi Garhi, Banawali, Rangpur, Lothal, Des Morasi, Kulli, Rana Ghundai, Anjira, Gumla, Amri, Ghundai, Mundigak, Diplabaga, Sahar-i-Sokhta, Bampur and Queta etc. are famous historical sites where the remains of Indus civilization and pre Indus civilization have been excavated.

● Daburkot, Periano, Ghundai, Kulli, Mehi, Chanhudaro, Amri, Lohumjodaro, Alimurad, Ropar, Rangpur, Sutkegender are the prominent (spots) places of Indus Valley civilization.

● The excavations of Kalibangan, a historical place in Rajasthan began in 1961 under the direction of B. K. Thapar and B. B. Lal. From the lower layer of the excavation, the remains of pre Indus civilization and from the upper layer of the Indus civilization are discernible. The fortress and the city both were surrounded with walls.

● The excavations at Rangpur—an Indus site in Gujarat were carried out in 1953-54 under the leadership of Rangnath Rao. Forts of raw bricks, drainage, terracotta utensils, weights and slabs of stone have been found but the idol of mother Goddess (Matridevi) and coins have not been found.

● Lothal was situated at that time near the ocean. In excavations the remains of a dockyard have been found which testify to the trade relations of Indus people with western Asia.

● In the district of Kutchh in Gujarat state, 12 kms north-east of Adesar is situated Surkota which was explored and excavated in 1964 under the guidance of Jagatpati Joshi.

● In the excavation of Indus civilization, a very big building has been explored. It is 242 ft long and 112 ft broad. The walls are 5 ft thick.

● Some figurines on tables have been found in Indus civilization in the centre of which is a round shaped Sun and around it are the pictures of 6 gods arranged in a way that they appear as if they are the Sun beams. This testifies to the worship of Sun in the period.

● The proof of the existence of a Man-like being are 1 crore to 20 lacs years old.

● In the Indian population, there are four basic racial sub-differences. These are Negrito, Astro Australians, Kakeshisi and Mongoloids.

● In India, skeletons (human body in bones-kankal) have been found in Sarai Nahar Rai near Allahabad, Bataikhor and Lekhania. High in length, flat nose and broad mouth are their characteristics. These belong to Mesolithic age.

● The pre stone civilization came to be known in the region of river Sohan a subsidiary of Sindhu. Hence it is called Sohan civilization. The Vatikapoom in the form of (Gandasa) axe and Khandak were its main implements.

● In Harappan culture, the worship of Earth as goddess was in vogue. This is indicated by the idol of a woman with a plant growing out of her womb.

● Along with the Elephants, Rhinoceros, Buffalos, Lions and Deers, the picture of Yogi engraved on a seal (Muhar) suggests the worship of Shiva in Harappan civilization. This God had three heads and he sat with crossed legs.

● The Talismans obtained in large numbers indicate that the people of Harappan culture believed in witchcraft or the dead souls. These talismans were made of bronze and copper in the form of plate.

● In Harappan culture the weight (for measuring) were 16 or of its multiplied numbers.

● The dogs and cats were the domesticated animals and their foot prints confirm this fact.

● The remains of the horses have been found at Surkota. The existence of the horse is not known from the upper layer of Mohenjo-Daro excavation. The terracotta small figurines provide knowledge about it.

● The people of Lothal used rice in 1800 B.C.

● As Sindh was one of the oldest regions for cultivating cotton, the Greeks named it as Sedon.

● In Harappan culture, silver was obtained from Afghanistan, Iran, South India, Arabia and Baluchistan. Gold was imported from Afghanistan and Persia.

● The stone Lajward was brought from Badakshan, Feroza was brought from Iran. Jayumani was brought from Maharashtra, Moonga and Redstone were brought from Saurashtra and Western India and the precious greenstone (Panna) was brought from Central Asia.

● The Ahar culture (Rajasthan) belonged to the Copper age. The houses were built of stone and a mixture of lime and soil. Paddy was cultivated and Metal Work in Bronze was in vogue. All these were the characteristics of this culture which existed about 2000 B.C.

● The remains of Malwa stone and bronze culture have been found in Navdatoli where the houses were built of mud, bamboo and dry grass in a square and round shape. The terracotta utensils and agricultural products of wheat, oil seeds, pulses (Masur) and green and black gram are the characteristics of this culture.

● The Rishis (Sages) like Gritsamad, Vishwamitra, Bhardwaj, Atri and Vashishta composed the Suktas or the Vedic Mantras.

● The prominent female sages were Lopamudra, Ghosa, Shachi and Poulomi.

● Sama Veda is divided into three branches—(1) Kouthum, (2) Ranayaniya, (3) Jaminiya.

● Prominent among the Ayurvedacharyas were Acharya Ashwini Kumar, Dhanvantari, Banabhatt, Sushrut, Madhav, Jeevan and Lolimbaraja etc.

● Ayur Veda is an ‘Upaveda’ of Rig Veda, Dhanur Veda is ‘Upaveda’ of Yajur Veda, Gandharva Veda is the ‘Upaveda’ of Sam Veda and Shilpa Veda is the ‘Upaveda’ of Atharva Ved.

 ● Rig Veda has two Brahmans—(1) Aitereya, (2) Kaushitaki.

 ● Krishna Yajur Veda has the Brahman—Taitteriya and Shukla Yajur Veda has the Shatpath Brahman.

 ● The Brahmans of Sam Veda are Tandav, Panchvish, Sadvish and Chhandogya.

 ● The Aranyakas deal with life, death and other serious themes. These are written and studied in loneliness of the forests.

 ● Aitereya and Kaushitaki are the Aranyakas of Rig Veda. The author of Aitereya was Mahidas Aitereya.

 ● Taitteriya Aranyaka belongs to Krishna Yajur Veda.

 ● Sam Veda and Atharav Veda have no Aranyakas.

 ● Prominent among the Upanishads are Ish, Ken, Kath, Prashn, Mundak, Mandukya, Taitteriya, Aitereya, Chhandogya, Vrihadaranyak, Shwetashwara, Kaushitaki and Mahanarayana.

 ● During the Rigvedic period Nishk was an ornament for the neck; Karna shobhan was an ornament for the ear and Kumbh was the ornament for the head.

● In the Rigvedic age, the Aryans domesticated the cow, the buffalo, goat (ajaa), horse, elephant and camel etc.

 ● Bheeshaj was the person who treated the sick people.

 ● The Rigvedic Aryans worshipped the Sun as Savita, Mitra, Pooshan and Vishnu. Sun was called the ‘Eye of Gods’; and Agni the ‘Mouth of Gods’. Agni was considered to be the Purohit of the Aryans. They thought that the offering of the Yagna reaches to the Gods through Agni. Varun was worshipped as a spatial God.

● In Rig Veda, Usha, Sita, Prithvi, Aranyani, Ratri, Vak are worshipped as goddesses.

● Besides Rig Veda, the reference of Sita as the goddess of agriculture is made in Gomil Grihya Sutra and Paraskar Grihya Sutra.

● The ancient idols of Ganesh show his main weapons as Paash and Ankush.

● In the Rigvedic age the traders were called ‘Pani’. They stole away the cattle of the Aryans.

● Das’ or Dasyas were more hated than the ‘Pani’. They have been referred as black complexioned inauspicious and opposed to Yagnas. They were the worshippers of Phallus (Shishnadev).

● In the Rigvedic age, the cow was the backbone of economy. It was called ‘Aghanya’—not to be killed, war has been referred as Gavisthi, the guest as Mohan and the daughter as Duhiti. One Rik refers to the domestication of sheep.

● Vashishtha who replaced Vishwamitra as Purohit of King Sudas, has been mentioned as adopted son of Urvashi, and born of the ‘Virya’ of Mitra and Varun on an earthen pot.

● Ballabh and Tarukshadas were chieftains who lavishly donated to the Purohits and through their grace obtained respect and high place in the Aryan society.

● Savitri is referred in the famous Gayatri Mantra. In Rig Veda the maximum reference is made of Indra. After him Varuna  is referred to. In the earlier Rich as Varuna and Marutha have been mentioned as ‘Gan’. Twasta also was a Vedic God.

● Prajapati has been referred as the Adi Purush—the first human (male). The Gods were his children.

● In Rig Veda, the king has been mentioned as the Protector of the clan or the Gopta  Janasya. The reference to Sabha, Samiti, Gan, Vidath is made as the Tribal Councils.

● No bureaucracy developed in Rigvedic age. Yet the officer of Gochar land were called Vrajpati, the officer of the village was called Gramani. He was the commander. The chief of the family is referred as ‘Kulap’.

● The words like Vrat, Gan, Gram and Shardh have also been used for indicating the group of Soldiers.

● In Rig Veda  Jan is used 275 times, Vish is used 170 times. Sangram is the word which indicates war between the villages.

● The God of Vegetation. It was also an intoxicating drink and the method of its preparation is referred in the Rig Veda.

● The later Vedic literature was written during 1100 to 600 B.C. The painted grey ware—bowls and plates were used and the tools which they used were made of iron.

● The main crop of the later Vedic age was wheat and paddy instead of barley.

● In the later Vedic age, the Vidath were extinct but the Sabha and the Samiti existed.

● In this period, the King performed the rites of Rajsuya Yajna with a desire to obtain divine power, Ashwamedha Yajna to expand the empire and the Vajpeya Yajna for chariot racing with friends and relatives of his Gotra.

● The Gotra system began in the later Vedic age. The custom of marrying outside the Gotra also started.

● In the literature of later Vedic age, the first three Ashrams are mentioned—(1) Brahmcharya, (2) Grihastha, (3) Banprastha. The Sanyas Ashram is not mentioned.

● In later Vedic period the plant Som could not be obtained easily. As such other drinks were also used.

● Gold and Silver were mainly used for making ornaments and utensils. Other metals were used for making many other implements in the later Vedic era.

● In later Vedic period, the commercial classes (Traders) organized themselves in ‘Sangh’. The Aryans conducted sea trade. Nisk, Satman and Krishal were used as coins for trade purposes.

● In comparison to the religion of Rigvedic period, the later Vedic religion had become very complex. Purohits, Yagna and sacrifice were considered important. Many types of Yagnas were performed. 

● The Shatpath Brahman refers to the various steps in progress of cultivation—Jutai (ploughing), Buwai
(planting), Lawani (weaning), Mandai (cutting) are the various processes mentioned in it. 

● Sangam literature is compiled in 8 books. They are—(1) Narune, (2) Kuruntoge, (3) Aigunuru, (4) Padirupyuttu, (5) Paripadal, (6) Karlittorga, (7) Nedultoge, (8) Purnanuru. 

● In the Sangam age, the Tamil Grammar was written in a detailed book, ‘Tolakappiyam’. 

● With the songs of the musicians, the dancers known as Panar and Widelier used to dance. 

● Pedinekilkanku is a famous composition of Sangam literature. 

● Sangam is a Sanskrit word meaning a Congregation and a Council. 

● The main theme of the Sangam literature is ‘Romance’ (Shringar) and heroism (Veergatha). Shringar is called as ‘Aham’ and Veergatha has been called as ‘Puram’. 

● The first Sangam was organized at Madurai under the chairmanship of Rishi Agastya. 

● The second Sangam was organized at Kapatpuram again under the chairmanship of Rishi Agastya. 

● The third Sangam was organized at Madurai and it was chaired by ‘Nakkirar’. 

● Avey was the family of Sangam age which meant Sabha (assembly). 

● Panchvaram was the assembly of the advisors of the King of Sangam age. 

● Ur was the institution which looked after the city administration. 

● The excavation of Arikmedu, provide enough evidence to prove that once upon a time, the cantonments of the Roman traders resided there. 

● The teachers in the Sangam age were called as Kanakkaters. 

● The students in the Sangam age were called Bhanwan or Pillai. 

● Parshvanath arranged for fourfold vows (Chaturvrata) for the Bhikshus (monks)—(1) I shall not kill the living beings, (2) I shall always speak the truth, (3) I shall not steal, (4) I shall not keep any property.

● Mahavir Swami has been called Nigashtha, Naatputra and Nirgranth Saatputra.

● Mahavir Swami left his mortal frame and attained Nirvana at Pawapuri near Patna in Bihar.

● The Triratna in Jainism are described as Samyak Shraddha (veneration), Samyak Gyan (knowledge) and Samyak Acharana (conduct).

● According to Jainism, Nirvana (redemption) to free the soul from the physical bondage.

● Mahavir Swami has described five vows for the common people which are called as Panchmaha-vrat. These are—Truth, Non-violence, No stealing, No collection of wealth or anything and celibacy (Satya, Ahimsa, Astey, Aparigrah and Brahamacharya). To these was later added, ‘Not to eat at Night’.

● Kaivalya is total knowledge which the Nirgranthget.

● Buddha was born in the Lumbini forest, 14 km beyond Kapilvastu in Nepal Tarai.

● Kaundinya, a Brahmin astrologer, was contemporary of Buddha.

● Gautama obtained knowledge at Gaya. Hence the place is called Bodh Gaya.

● The first sermon of Buddha is known as ‘Dharma Chakra Pravartan’.

● Mahatma Buddha delivered his first sermon at Rishipattan (Saranath).

● The followers of Buddha were divided into four sections—(1) Bhikshu or the monks, (2) Bhik-shuni or lady monks, (3) Upasaks or devotees, (4) Upasikas or lady devotees.

● After delivering his teachings for constant 45 years, Mahatma Buddha attained Mahaparinirvan at the age of 80 at Kushinara (Kushinagar).

● Tripitaks are—(1) Vinay Pitak, (2) Suttpitak, (3) Abhidhamma Pitak.

● Vinay Pitak is divided into 3 sections—(1) Sutta Vibhag, (2) Khandhak, (3) Pariwar.

● Suttpitak contains—Diggh Nikay, Majjhim Nikay, Anguttar Nikay and Khuddak Nikay.

● In Abhidhamma Pitak, philosophical and spiritual thoughts are contained.

● There are seven treatises of Abhidhamma Pitak —(1) Dhamma Sangeeti, (2) Vibhang, (3) Dhatu Katha, (4) Puggal Panjati, (5) Katha Vastu, (6) Yamak, (7) Patthan.

● The eightfold paths are—(1) Right belief, (2) Right thought, (3) Right speech, (4) Right action, (5) Right means of livelihood, (6) Right execution, (7) Right remembrance, (8) Right meditation.

● In Buddhism, the Astangikmarg (eight fold path) is classified as—(1) Praja Skandh, (2) Sheel Skandh, (3) Samadhi Skandh.

● Under Praja Skandh come—Samyak Drishti, Samyak Sankalp and Samyak Vani (speech).

● Under Sheel Skandh come—Samyak Karmant, Samyak Aajeev.

● Under Samadhi Skandh come—Samyak Vyayam, Samyak Smriti and Samyak Samadhi.

● Mahatma Buddha was silent on the existence of God or otherwise but he did not believe in the existence of soul.

● The first Buddhist Council was convened after a few years of Buddha’s death under the chairmanship of Mahakassap in Saptparna caves near Rajgrih.

● The second Buddhist Council was organized at Vaisali.

● The third Buddhist Council was convened at Patliputra during the regime of Ashoka.

● The fourth Buddhist Council was convened at Kashmir during the regime of Kanishka.

● Puranas are said to be 18 in number of which Bhagawata Puran is very renowned.

● Bhagawatism is mentioned for the first time in the Bhishm Parva of Mahabharat.

● The Dravida Vaishnav devotees are known as the Azhwars.

● A Brahman named Kautilya or Chanakya played a significant role in the establishment of the Mauryan Empire.

● In the Greek writings, Chandra Gupta Maurya are called Sandrocottus.

● Arien and Plutarch have called him Androcottus.

● In the Mudra Rakshasa written by Vishakhdutt, Chandra Gupta Maurya is called Chandragiri Chandrashree.

● In Buddhist literature, Mahavansh Tika is the book which throws ample light on the life of Chandra Gupta Maurya.

● ‘Indika’ was written by Megasthenese.

● In the book Mahavansh, Chandra Gupta Maurya is said to be Kshatriya by caste.

● After being defeated in war with Chandra Gupta, Selukose offered him Gadrosia (Baluchistan), Acrosia (Kandahar), Aria (Herat) and a part of Hindukush.

● Sudarshan Lake at Junagarh was built by Chandra Gupta Maurya.

● The Mahasthan inscription points out Chandra Gupta’s ascendancy over Bengal.

● The Rudradaman inscription of Girnar testifies to the suzerainty of Chandra Gupta over Saurashtra.

● According to Jain Texts, Chandra Gupta in the last years of his life, accepted Jainism and went to Mysore with the Jain monk Bhadrabahu.

● The empire of Chandra Gupta spread from Himalaya in the north to Mysore in the south; and from Bengal in the east to Baluchistan in the west. It covered Punjab, Sindh, Kashmir, Doab of Ganga and Yamuna, Magadh, Bengal, Malwa, Saurashtra and the region of Mysore.

● The administrative system of Chandra Gupta Maurya was Monarchy. In order to administer well, Chandra Gupta Maurya appointed a Council of Ministers.

 ● In the Mauryan age, the officer who collected the trade taxes was called Shulkadhyaksha.

 ● The Chairman of the Government services was known as Sutradhyaksha in the Mauryan age.

 ● The officer-in-charge of Weight and Measures was known as Peetadhyaksha in the Mauryan age.

 ● In Mauryan age, the officer who controlled the manufacture of wine, its sale and purchase and its consumption was Suradhyaksha.

 ● The chairman of the agricultural department was called Seetadhyaksha in Mauryan age.

 ● There were many officers such as Ganikadhyaksha,` Mudradhyaksha, Navadhyaksha, Ashwadhyaksha and Devtadhyaksha etc. in the Mauryan Age. 

● The officer who kept the details of total income and expenditure of the State and decided the economic policy was called Sannidhata. Under him, worked officers like Treasurer and Shulkadhyaksha. 

● In Mauryan age, the minister of factories and mines was called Karmantirak. His main task was to excavate different metals from the mines and look after the factories. 

● In Mauryan age the Amatya of Fauzdari (Criminal) Court was called Pradeshta. 

● The Amatya of the Civil Court was known as Vyavaharik. 

● The Greek scholars have described the Amatyas as the seventh caste. 

● The successor of Chandra Gupta Maurya is called name Bindusara in majority of the Puranas. Ceylonese works, Buddhist texts and in Deepvansh and Mahavansh. In Vayu Puran, his name is given as Bhadrasaar. In some of the Puranas he is called as Varisaar. In the Chinese text—Fa-Uen-Chu-Lin, he is called as Bindupal. In another book Rajabalikatha, the successor and son of Chandra Gupta is called as Sinhasen. 

● Ptolemy, the ruler of Egypt sent Dioniyas as his ambassador to the Court of Bindusaar. 

● In Chandra Gupta Maurya’s time, the chief of the city was called Nagaradhyaksha who worked like the modern District Magistrate. 

● The smallest unit of the administration was the village. Its chief officer was called Gramik or Gramani. 

● Gramani was elected by the people of the village. 

● In every village, there was an officer who was called Gram Bhojak. 

● In the administration of Chandra Gupta Maurya the department of espionage was well organized. According to Kautilya, there were two sections of the secret service—(1) Sansthan, (2) Sancharan. 

● In the inscriptions, Ashoka is called Devanampriya and Priyadarshi. 

● The Ceylonese sources and Deepvansh, call him, Priyadarshan and Priyadarshi. Scholars think that these were his titles. 

● Asoka appointed an officer called Mahamatras in every city and district.

 ● In the 13th year of his reign, he appointed Dharma Mahamatra and Dharmayukta for the first time for the happiness and peace of his people. 

● Upagupta was a Bauddhist monk of Mathura under his influence; Ashoka changed his religion and accepted Buddhism. 

● Ahsoka sent his daughter Sanghmitra and son Mahendra to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka. 

● In the mini edicts Ashoka calls himself a Buddha Shakya. 

● Ashoka sent Majjhantik to propogate Buddhism in Kashmir. 

● In 1750, it was Teffenthaler who first explored the Ashokan pillars. 

● Asohka’s last edict was found by Beadon in 1915 at Maski. 

● The small edicts of Ashoka are of two types. According to Smith, they were written in 259-232 B.C. 

● The first kind of Ashoka  small pillar edicts are available at Roopnath in Jabalpur district, Sahasaram in Shahabad district of Bihar, Maski, in Raichoor district, and Vairat in Rajasthan. 

● The second type of Ashoka edicts have been found at Siddhpur (Chitralahug, Mysore) Jatig, Rameshwar and Brahmagiri.

● The Bhabru edict was found at Bairath near Jaipur in Rajasthan. In this edict seven precepts of Buddhism have been given which Asoka liked most and he desired that the people should read them and make their conduct accordingly. This edict is preserved in Kolkata Museum.

● Two edicts about Kalinga have been found at Dhauli and Jaugarh. In these, the principles of behaviour with the people of Kalinga and with the frontier people have been outlined.

● Asokan small edicts have been found at about 15 places.

● The Erangudi edict was found in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh at a place known as Erangudi.

● The Maski small edict was found from Maski village of Raichoor district of Andhra Pradesh. It contains the name of Asoka.

● The Rajul Mandgiri edict was found on a mound 20 miles beyond Erangudi in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh.

● The Gurjara edict has been found from a village named Gurjara in Datia district of Madhya Pradesh. It also mentions the name of Asoka.

● Ahraura edict was found from a hill of the village Ahraura in Mirzapur district of U.P.

● Palgoraria edict was found in 1975.

● The Sannati inscription (edict) has been found in the village Sannati in the district of Gulbarga of Karnatic State.

● The cave inscription are three in number which have been found in the Barabar hills of Gaya city in Bihar. These refer to the charity performed by the King to the Ajivaks.

● The language of the Kandahar edict is Greek and Aramaic.

● The Topara pillar edict has been found from a village named Topara in Haryana. In the course of time Firoz Tughlaq brought it to Delhi where it is kept at Feroz Shah Kotla ground.

● Rumindei small pillar edict was found from the Tarai of Nepal.

● Most of Asokan edicts are written in Prakrit language. 

● In Gupta age ships and boats were manufactured in large numbers. Gujarat, Bengal and Tamil Nadu were the main centres of cotton industry. 

● Trade between India and China was carried on before Gupta age, in 2nd century. 

● India had trade relations with eastern, countries. They were called Swarnabhumi (land of gold). 

● Peshawar, Bharaunch, Ujjaini, Varanasi, Prayag, Patliputra, Mathura, Vaishali and Tamralipti were trade centres. 

● In west Bharaunch and in east, Tamralipti were prominent ports. 

● Gold, silver, bronze, tin, campher, dates and horses were imported. 

● The collective unit of the people who worked in various industries, were known as ‘Kuliks’. 

● ‘Kulik Nigam’ and ‘Shreshthi Nigam were the unions of wealthy traders. The Kulik Nigam had its own seal which was used in commercial correspondence and the trade-goods. 

● In the Gupta age, India maintained trade relations with Arabia. Horses were imported from Arabia and Iran. 

● The Seals of Kulik have been excavated from the town Meeta near Allahabad. 

● From Vaishali 274 Seals of Sarthwah Kulik Nigam have been excavated prove that it was a great institution of the Gupta age. 

● Trade with China, Japan and Sumatra was carried from the port of Tamralipti. 

● In Gupta age the land tax was known as ‘Udrang’. 

● Kadur and Charpal were the ports situated in Andhra Pradesh. 

● Kaveripattanam and Tondai were the ports of Chola State. 

● Kokai and Saliyur were the ports of Pandya State. 

● Kottayam and Mujris were the ports of Malwa State. 

● Sindhu, Orhoth, Kalyan and Mibor were other main ports for trade. 

● Hiranya was the tax realized in cash. Bhutavat Pratyaya was the tax levied upon the imports from other countries. 

● Haldand was the tax charged on the ploughed land. 

● A definite portion of the produce from agricultural land was charged as the land tax by the State. It was called Bhag tax. Generally it was charged in kind. 

● In the Gupta age, the land was donated only to the Brahmans. 

● The land donated to Brahmans was called Brahmadeya. 

● The tax free villages of the Brahmans were called Agrahara. 

● In the Gupta age, the Gram Parishads (village councils) were autonomous and free from the State control. 

● The uncultivated land was the property of the king. 

● The women who remained unmarried throughout their life and passed their time in studies were called Brahmavadinis. 

● Taxila, Varanasi and Ujjaini were prominent centres of education. 

● In the Gupta society, intercaste marriages were performed. 

● The slave system was practised in the Gupta age. 

● The joint family system was in vogue in Gupta society. 

● In the women though not as much respected as in Vedic period, yet enjoyed important position in the society of Gupta age. 

● Sheelbhattarika was an educated and worthy woman of the Gupta age. 

● Widow re-marriages were performed in the Gupta age, But some works of the age speak against it. Chandra Gupta II married the widow of Ramgupta, his brother. Her name was Dhruva Swamini. 

● Prostitutes, expert in music and dance, and perfect in sexology were called ‘Ganikas’. 

● The traders and commercial professionals had their ‘Shrenis’ in Gupta age. The Patkar, Tailik (oil traders), Pashan Kottak (stone cutters) were important Shrenis. 

● The author of ‘Swapnavasavaduttam’ was an eminent prose writer. 

● The author of Bhattikavya or Ravan Vadh, was Bhatti, an eminent poet of Gupta age. 

● Bhartahari worte ‘Niti Shatak’, Shringar Shatak and Vairagya Shatak which became very famous. Some scholars believe that Bhartruhari is another name for Bhatti. 

● ‘Kuntleshwar Daityam’ is a drama that testifies to the fact that Kalidas belonged to the Gupta age. 

● ‘Abhigyanshakuntalam’ ‘Meghdoot’ ‘Ritusanhar’ are some of the major works of Kalidas. 

● Kamsutra is a famous book on Sexology written by Vatsyayan. 

● Vaibhashik and Sanghbhadra were the two Acharyas (teachers) of the Gupta age who wrote the literature of the Vaibhashik sect.

Knowledge of science and technology, however, got linked with religion and social relations. Relying primarily on pragmatism some intellectuals in India acquired intuitive awareness of scientific temper. In view of absence of experiment, some insights became ridiculous. 

Knowledge of science was known from very ancient times, although science, as we know today, was not known in India till modern times. The archaeological remains of the Indus Valley reveal knowledge of applied sciences. Scientific techniques were used in irrigation, Metallurgy, making of fired bricks and pottery, and simple reckoning and measurement of areas and volumes. 

It contrast more is known about Aryan achievements in the field of astronomy, mathematics and medicine. Chinese records indicate knowledge of a dozen books of Indian origin. Brahmagupta’s Sidhanta as well as Charaka’s and Susrata’s Samhitas were translated into Arabic in the 9th or 10th centuries A.D. 

In ancient Indian mathematics was known by the general name of Ganita, which included arithmetic’s, geometry, algebra, astronomy and astrology. It was Aryabhatta, who gave a new direction to trigonometry. The decimal system too was an innovation of India.

 By the third century B.C. mathematics, astronomy and medicine began to develop separately. In the field of mathematics ancient Indians made three distinct contributions, the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The earliest epigraphic evidence of the use of decimal system belongs to the fifth century A.D. Before these numerals appeared in the West they had been used in India for centuries. They are found in the inscriptions of Ashoka in the third century B.C. 

Indians were the first to use the decimal system. The famous mathematics Aryabhata. (A.D. 476-500) was acquainted with it. The Chinese learnt this system from the Buddhist missionaries, and the western world borrowed it from the Arabs when they came in contact with India. Zero was discovered by Indians in about the second century B.C. From the very beginning Indian mathematicians considered zero as a separate numeral, and it was used in this sense in arithmetic’s. In Arabia the earliest use of zero appears in A.D. 873. The Arabs learnt and adopted it from India and spread it in Europe. So far as Algebra is concerned both Indians and Greeks contributed to it, but in Western Europe its knowledge was borrowed not from Greece but from the Arabs who had acquired it from India.

 In the second century B.C. Apastemba contributed to practical geometry for the construction of altars on which the kings could offer sacrifices. It describes acute angle, obtuse angle, right angle etc. Aryabhatta formulated the rule for finding the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of trigonometry. The most famous work of his time is the Suryasiddhantha the like of which was not found in Contemporary ancient east.

 During the Gupta period mathematics was developed to such an extent and more advanced than any other nation of antiquity. Quite early India devised a rudimentary algebra which led to more calculations than were possible for the Greeks and led to the study of number for its own sake. The earliest inscription regarding the data by a system of nine digits and a zero is dated as 595 A.D. evidently the system was known to mathematicians some centuries before it was employed in inscriptions. Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta (7th century), Mahavira (9th century) and Bhaskara (12th century) made several discoveries which were known to Europe only after Renaissance. The understood the importance of positive and negative quantities, evolved sound system of extracting squares and cube roots and could solve quadratic and certain types of indeterminate equations. Aryabhatta gave approximate value of pie. It was more accurate than that of the Greeks. Also some strides were made in trigonometry, empirical geometry and calculus. Chiefly in astronomy the mathematical implications of zero and infinity were fully realized unlike anywhere in the world.

Among the various branches of mathematics, Hindus gave astronomy the highest place of honor. Suryasiddhantha is the best know book on Hindu astronomy. The text was later modified two or three times between 500 A.D. and 1500 A.D. The system laid down in the book can even now be used to predict eclipse within an error of two or three hours.

 The most renowned scholars of astronomy were Aryabhatta and Varhamihira. Aryabhatta belonged to the fifth century, and Varahamihira to the sixth. Aryabhatta calculated the position of the planets according to the Babylonian method. He discovered the cause of lunar and solar eclipses. The circumstances of the earth which he measured on the basis of the speculation are considered to be correct even now. He pointed out that the sun is stationary and the earth rotates around it. The book of Aryabhatta is the Aryabhattiya. Varhimihira’s well-known work is called Brihatsamhita which belongs to the sixth century A.D. Varhamihira stated that the moon rotates around the earth and the earth rotates around the earth rotates around the sun. He utilized several Greek works to explain the movement of the planets and some other astronomical problems. Although Greek knowledge influenced Indian astronomy, there is no doubt that Indian pursued the subject further and made use of it in their observations of the planets.

Aryabhatta wrote a book when he was barely 23 years. Varhmihira of the sixth century wrote a summary of five astronomical books current wrote a summary of five astronomical books current in his time. Brahamagupta of the seventh century A.D. appreciated the value of observation and astronomy and his book was translated into Arabic. One last great scientist was Bhaskara II. One of the chapters in the book “Sidhanta Shiromani”, dealing with mathematics, is the well-known work of Lilavait.

 Nevertheless, Indian views on the original and evolution of the universe was matter of religion rather than of science. The cosmic schemes of Hindus and Jains in fundamentals were the same. All postulated a flat earth although Indian astronomers came to know that this was incorrect early in the Christian era. The idea of flat such remained for religious purposes.

 Regarding astronomy proper it was studied as a Vedanta. Its name was Jyotisha. A primitive kind of astronomy was developed mainly for the purpose of settling the dates and times at which periodical sacrifices were to be performed. Several Greek words gained momentum in Sanskrit through knowledge of Greek astronomy. The sixth century astronomer Varahamihira called one of his five astronomical systems as Romaka Sidhanta. It is only western astronomy that introduced in Indian the sign of the Zodiac. The seven-day week, the hour, and several other ideas. Later, Indian astronomers made some advances on the knowledge of the Greeks and passed on their knowledge with that of mathematics via the Arabs to Europe. As early as seventh century, a Syrian astronomer knew of the greatness of Indian astronomy and mathematics.

 In the field of medicine, Aurveda was the contribution of India. Seven hundred hymns in the Vedas, particularly Atharva Veda, refer to topics of Ayurveda. Indeed, the whole approach was not scientific. His earliest mention of medicines is in the Atharva Veda. As in order ancient societies, the remedies recommended in it they are replete with magical charms and spells. Medicine could not develop along scientific lines. In post-Maurya time India witnessed two famous scholars of the Aurveda, Susrtua and Charaka. In the Susrutasmhita,  Susruta describes methods of operating cataract, stone disease and several other ailments. He mentions as many as 121 implements to be used for operations. For the treatment of disease he lays special emphasis on diet and cleanliness.  Charaka wrote the Charakasamhita in the second century A.D. It is like encyclopedia of Indian medicines. It describes various types of fever. Leprosy, hysteria and tuberculosis.

 Possibly Charaka did not know that some of these are infections. His book contains the names of a large number of plants and herbs which were to be used as medicine. The book is thus useful not only for study of ancient Indian medicine but also for ancient Indian flora and chemistry. In subsequent centuries Indian medicines developed on the lines laid down by Charaka. The Vedic hymns attribute various diseases to demons and spirits and the remedies for hymns prescribing correctly the symptoms of pulmonary tuberculosis, and connecting dropsy with heart diseases.

 However, national medicine began to 800 B.C. Medicine became a regular subject of study at centers like Taxila and Varanasi. The latter specialized in surgery. Susrutasmhita was compiled in the fourth century A.D. Charaka compiled the teachings of two of his predecessors who served at Taxila. Charaka and Susruta’s Samhitas reached as far as Manchuria through translations in Tibetan and other Asian languages. In the eighth century A.D. these books influenced European medicine as carried over by two Arabs. Charaka Samhita was published as late as 1550 in Arabic. Despite these achievements, medicine did not make any remarkable strides, for absence of dissection led to ignorance of anatomy and physiology. Indians were equally ……………….. of the functions of internal organs such as lungs and brain.

 Surgery of some kind was even during the Vedic period. It was only from the time of Susruta that surgery came to occupy an important place in medicine. Surgical operations were performed like taking the fetus out of the womb. Including caesarean, section, treatment of fistula removal of stone from bloder and plastic surgery for the nose. 

Despite the developments as the above in medicine, ancient Indian doctors, in general had no knowledge of the functions of brain, although they knew the importance of the spinal cord and the existence of nervous system. Once again social taboos stood in the way of the growth of medical knowledge. It was a taboo to touch dead bodies.

Despite the fact that the physiological knowledge of ancient Indians was very poor, Indians evolved empirical surgery. They knew bone-setting, plastic surgery and surgeons in ancient India were experts is repairing noses, ears and lips lost, or injured by mutilation.

 The physician was a respectable member of society as the Vaidyas were ranked higher in the hierarchy. Even to this day the rules of professional behavior laid down in medical tests are almost the same as those of Hippocrates. Of course, some statements at one place state that the Physicians should not betray the patients and should be always of pleasant speech. In this context, he pleads that every day they must pray on rising and going to bed, since the work of the welfare of the all beings specially cows.

 Regarding physics, it was closely linked with religion and theology and it even differed from sect to sect. Almost all religions believed that the universe consisted of elements like earth, air, water, and Akasha (ether). Most schools maintained that there were as many types of atoms as there were elements. Some Buddhists conceived atom as the minutes object capable of occupying space but also as occupying the minutest possible duration of time coming into being and vanishing almost in an instant only to be succeeded by another atom caused by the first. This somewhat resembles the quantum theory of Planck. The Vaisheshika School believed a single atom to be a point in space completely without magnitude. Further, most of the schools believed that atoms constitute molecules. However, the Indian atomic theories were not based on experiment but intuitive logic. The great theologian Sankara strongly argued against their existence.

 Beyond this knowledge of atoms, physics in India did not develop much. However, in the science of acoustics, India made real discovers. Based on experience for this correct recitation on Vedas, the human era was highly trained for the phonetic study – distinguished musical tones far closer than those of other ancient musical systems much earlier than other civilization.

Regarding chemistry and metallurgy too, some progress was made in ancient times. The Harappans developed metallurgy of copper and bronze about 2500 B.C. The Vedic Aryans tanned leather, fermented grains and fruits, and dyed scale production of copper, iron and steel, brass, silver and gold and their alloys. Indian steel was highly esteemed in the ancient world and it was exported in large quantities. Tin and mercury were imported and worked. And from the seventh century, alchemy was referred to in literature. The medical chemistry of ancient India did succeed in producing many important alkalis, acids and metallic salts. It is claimed by Bashama that ancient Indians ever discovered a form of gun powder. The coming of middle ages, Indian chemists, like their counterparts in the rest of the world, became increasingly interested in a specific remedy for all diseases, the source of perpetual youth, and even the surest means to salvation. Although they could not make precious metals, they could understand the chemistry of metallic sets. The heights attained by Indians in metallurgy and engineering are borne out by the almost pure copper stature of Buddha found at Sultanganj and the famous iron Pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi which has been able to withstand rain and weather for centuries without rusting).

By

Shabeer Mon , Asst.Prorfessor, Kerala

The highly esteemed Vedas have come to down to us. They existed for nearly over 2000 years before they were known in India. It was the knowledge of acoustics that enabled ancient Indians to orally transmit the Vedas from generation to generation. Institutional form of imparting learning came into existence in the early centuries of the Christian era. The approach to learning was to study logic and epistemology. 

The study of logic was followed by Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, one of the most important topics of Indian thoughts was pramana or means of reliable knowledge. The nyaya schools upheld four pramanas – perceptions of are liable by analogy or comparison, word (Sabda), and pronunciation of a reliable authority such as the Vedas. The Vedanta school added one more to it i.e. intuition. 

It is probably while studying the process of inference that the schools of true logic arose. Ancient Indian postulated syllogism though not as accurate as that of Aristotle. Yet, they recognize some of the major fallacies of logic like reduction and absurdum, circular argument, infinite regression, dilemma, and ignoratio elenchus. 

In the field epistemology, Jains contributed the most for the Jains there was not only two possibilities of existence and non-existence but seven more. Although the modern logicians might laugh at this pedantic system of ontological and epistemological reality they concede that the world is more complex and subtle than we think it to be. 

Regarding institutional form of education the first was the guru-sishya system. According to sacred texts, the training of the Brahmin pupil took place at the home of a Brahmin teacher. In some texts the guru is depicted as the poor ascetic and it is the duty of the student to beg for his teacher. The first lesson that was taught to the student was the performance of Sandhya and also reciting of Gayatri mantra. 

The family functioned as a domestic school, an Asrama or a hermitage where the mental faculties of the pupils were developed by the teacher’s constant attention and personal instruction. Education, treating as a matter of individual concern, did not admit of the method of mass production applicable in industry. The making of man was regarded as an artistic and not a mechanical process. Indeed, the aim of education was the developing of the pupil’s personality, his innate and latent capacities. This view of education as a process of one’s inner growth and self-fulfillment evolved its own technique, its rules, methods and practices. 

The thinking principle, manana sakti was reckoned higher than the subject of thinking. So the primary subject of education was the mind itself. According to the ancient Indian theory of education, the training of the mind and the process of thinking, are essential for the acquisition of knowledge. The chase counts more than the game. So the pupil had mainly to educe himself and achieves his own mental growth. Education was reduced to the three simple processes of Sravana, Manana and Nidhyaasana. Sravana was listening to the truths as they fell from the lips of the teacher. Knowledge was technically called Shruti or what was heard by the ear and not what was seen in writing.  The second process of knowledge called Manana implies that the pupil has to think out for himself the meaning of the lessons imparted to him orally by his teacher so that they may be assimilate fully. The third step known as Nidhyasana means complete comprehension by the pupil of the truth that is taught so that he may live the truth and not merely explain it by word. Knowledge must cultivate in realization. The admission was made by the formal ceremony Upanayana or initiation by which the pupil left the home of his natural parents for that of the preceptor. In this new home he had a second birth and was called Dvijya (Twice-born). 

Besides these regular schools of instructions, there were special institutions for the promotion of advance study and research. These are called in the Rig Veda as Brahmana-Sangha, Academies of learned most its discussions hammered into shape the very language of the country, the refined language of Sanksrit (Samskrita) as the Vehicle of highest thought. These Academics were called Prisads, there is a reference to the Panchala pParisad in the Upanishads, in whose proceedings even kings participated, learning was also prompted by discussions at public meetings which were a regular of rural life, and were addressed by wandering scholars known as Carakas, These scholars toured the country to deliver public discourses and invite discussion. 

What might count as earliest literary congress of the world was the congress of philosophers which was codification of Brahmanical philosophy by discussing the subject under the direction of the master philosopher, Yajnavalkya. In these deliberations at the highest level, a lady- philosopher named Gargi was a prominent participant beside men like Uddalaka Arni. Obviously, in those days women were admitted to the highest knowledge and did not suffer from any education disabilities. There was equality between the sexes in the field of knowledge. The Rig Veda mentions women rays called as Brahmanavadinis. 

To begin with, in ancient India, the main subject was the Veda. The teacher would instruct handful of students seated on ground. For many hours daily they would repeat verses after verses of the Vedas till they attain mastery of at least one of them. To ensure correctness of memory, the hymns were taught in more than one way.

Soon the curricula were expanded. The limbs of the Veda or the six Vedangas were taught – the performance of sacrifice, correct pronunciation, knowledge of prosody, etymology, grammar, and jyotisha or the science of calendar. Also in the post-Vedic era, teachers often instructed their students in the six schools of Philosophy.

The writers of Smritis maintain that young women of upper class underwent this kind of training. This is a doubtful contention. Princess and other leading Kshatriyas were trained in all the manifold sciences to make them fit for government. Most boys of the lower orders learnt their trades from their fathers. 

Some cities became renowned because of their teachers. Chief among them were – Varanasi, Taxila from the day of Buddha and Kanchi in the beginning of the Christian era. Varanasi was famous for its religious teachers. Taxila was known for its secular studies. Among the famous men connected with Taxila were Panini, the grammarian of the fifth or fourth century B.C. : Kautilya, the Brahmin minister of Chandragupta Maurya and Charaka one of the two leading authorities of Indian medical sciences. The institutions imparting Vedic knowledge that exists even today. There were also universities like Taxila and Ujjain for medicine and learning including mathematics and astronomy respectively. In the south Kanchi became an important center of learning. Hiuen remarks that Vallabhi was as great as Nalanda and Vikramashila. 

Although the Smritis maintained that a small number of students study under a single teacher, university turned towns came into existence like Varanasi, Taxila etc.  At Varanasi there were 500 students and a number of teachers. The whole establishment was maintained by charitable people ideally, the teacher asked no fee, but the students repaid his debt by their service to the teacher. A Jathaka story tells of how a teacher of Taxila treated well the students who paid him money while keeping other waiting. It is also interesting to note that in Taxila even married people were admitted as students. 

Out of all the Universities, Nalanda and imposed structures. Eight Colleges were built by different patterns including one by the king of Sri Vijaya (Sumatra). One of the colleges was four storied high as stated by Hiuen-Tsang. Every facility existed for studying various kinds of subjects in the University. There were three great libraries as per Tibetan records. 

Nalanda attracted students not only from different parts of India but also from Tibet and China. The standards of examination were stiff, and only those who could pass the test prescribed by the dvarapandita or the scholar at the gate were admitted to this university. Also, for being admitted to the university, candidates were required to be familiar with old and new books. 

Nalanda was one of the earliest examples of residential cum-teaching institutions which housed thousands of monks devoted to learning, philosophy and meditation. Over 10,000 students including teachers lived and studied at the university. They came from various parts of the world apart from India-Central Asia, China and Korea. 

Though Nalanda was primarily a Buddhist university its curricula included Hindu scriptures, Philosophy and medicine as recorded by Hiuen-Tsang. Logic and exegetics were pre-eminent because these students were expected to enter into dialogue with visiting doctors of all schools. This compulsion of public debate made both teachers and students become familiar with all systems of thought in accurate summary. 

The university had also succession of brilliant teachers. Dharmapala was a Tamil noble from Kanchi in the south. Janamitra come from another country. Silabhadra, the saintly guru of Hiuen-Tsang, came from Assam and he was a converted Brahmin. A great achievement of the University was that it was able to continuously rejuvenate Buddhism in far off countries. Tibetan records mention a succession of learned monks who visited their country. It is also said that Sudhakara Simha went to China and worked there on the translation of Buddhist texts.

By Shabeer Mone.Asst Professor , Kerala

Which is the oldest Veda?
(a) Rig Veda
(b) Atharva Veda
(c) Sama Veda
(d) Yajur Veda

Answer: Rig Veda

Which of the following Vedas is a collection of spellsand incantations?
(a) Sama Veda
(b) Yajur Veda
(c) Atharva Veda
(d) Rig Veda

Answer: Atharva Veda

Which among the following, was the chief feature of Rig Vedic religion ?
(a) Performance of sacrifices
(b) Predominance of female goddesses
(c) Belief in existence of life after death
(d) Worship of images

Answer: Worship of images

800 B.C.-600 B.C. is designated as the
(a) Period of Mahabharat
(b) Period of Brahmanas
(c) Period of the Sutras
(d) Period of Ramayana

Answer: Period of Brahmanas

Which one of the following was the main characteristic of the later Vedic age ?
(a) Caste system
(b) Food gathering practice
(c) Varna system
(d) Tribal polity

Answer: Caste system

Which of the following is an Upanishad ?
(a) Krishna Karnamruta
(b) Aitreya
(c) Vijasena
(d) Chandogya
Answer: Aitreya

The Vedic deity Indra was the goddess of
(a) Rain and thunder
(b) Fire
(c) Wind
(d) Eternity

Answer: Rain and thunder

Which one of the following contains the Gayatri Mantra ?
(a) Yajur Veda
(b) Sama Veda
(c) Upanishad
(d) Rig Veda

Answer: Rig Veda

Which among the following is the source of information about early Vedic period ?
(a) Excavations
(b) Rig Veda
(c) Jataka stories
(d) Post- Vedic literature

Answer: Rig Veda

What was the basis of class differentiation among Aryans ?
(a) Economic condition
(b) None of these
(c) Trade
(d) Colour

Answer: Colour

Which of the following ideals is not contained in the Atharva Veda ?
(a) Moksha
(b) Upasana
(c) Gnana
(d) Karma

Answer: Moksha

Varna system of Aryans was based on
(a) Caste
(b) Sex
(c) Colour
(d) Occupation

Answer: Colour

The chief characteristic of the Rig Vedic religion was
(a) Performance of sacrifices
(b) Preponderance of female goddesses
(c) Worship of images
(d) Belief in the existence of heaven

Answer: Performance of sacrifices

The God not worshipped during the time of Rig Vedic Aryans was
(a) Marut
(b) Shiva
(c) Indra
(d) Agni

Answer: Shiva

The Rig Veda consists of ?
(a) 2000
(b) 1028
(c) 512
(d) 1024

Answer: 1028

The ninth mandala of the Rig Veda samhita is devoted wholly to
(a) Gods related to plants and drugs
(b) Soma and the god who is named after the drink
(c) Urvashi and the Heaven
(d) Indra and his elephant

Answer: Soma and the God who is named after the drink

Which of the following animals was known to ancient Vedic people ?
(a) Lion
(b) Tiger
(c) Elephant
(d) Boar

Answer: Lion

In Rig Vedic society, which of the following was unknown?
(a) Child marriage
(b) Polyandry
(c) Polygamy
(d) Purdah system

Answer: Polyandry

The family of the Rig Vedic Aryans was
(a) Matrilineal
(b) Patrilineal
(c) Patriarchal
(d) Matrairchal

Answer: Patrilineal

The Vishnu Purana gives an account of
(a) Life in Indus Valley
(b) Mauryan dynasty
(c) The Andhras
(d) The Vardhanas

Answer: Mauryan dynasty

The word Vid from which Veda has been derived means
(a) God
(b) Holy
(c) Doctrine
(d) Knowledge

Answer: God

The ritualistic precepts attached to the hymns of the Vedas were known as the
(a) Upanishads
(b) Aranyakas
(c) Brahmanas
(d) Samhitas

Answer: Brahmanas

The Aryans at first settled in
(a) Punjab
(b) Kashmir
(c) Sindh
(d) Gujarat

Answer: Punjab

Which of the following craftmanship was not practised by the Aryans?
(a) Blacksmith
(b) Carpentery
(c) Pottery
(d) Jewellery

Answer: Blacksmith

The Aryans came to India from
(a) South-east Asia
(b) None of these
(c) Central Asia
(d) Eastern Europe

Answer: Central Asia

Brahmanas are books that deal with
(a) Bhakti
(b) Meditation
(c) Ritualism
(d) Yoga

Answer: Bhakti

Which of the following Vedas throws light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans ?
(a) Samaveda
(b) Atharvaveda
(c) Yajurveda
(d) Rigveda

Answer: Rigveda

The Puranas contain
(a) Laws of Manu and the history on various dynasties
(b) Thoughts on the mystery of life and universe mythology.
(c) Hymns in favour of the Gods
(d) Mythology

Answer: Thoughts on the mystery of life and universe mythology.

The code of conduct of the Vedic society was laid out in which of the following texts ?
(a) Vedas
(b) Upanishads
(c) Puranas
(d) Smritis

Answer: Smritis

The chief impact of Vedic culture on Indian history was the
(a) Progress of philosophy
(b) Rise of other wordly outlook
(c) Consolidation of caste system
(d) Growth of Sanskrit

Answer: Consolidation of caste system

Ayurveda owes its origin to
(a) Sama Veda
(b) Atharva Veda
(c) Yajur Veda
(d) Rig Veda

Answer: Yajur Veda

Which subject is not dealt with in the Puranas ?
(a) Arithmetic
(b) Genealogies of gods
(c) Primary ceation
(d) Secondary creation

Answer: Arithmetic

The Term nishka, which meant an ornament in the Vedic period, was used in later times to denote a/an
(a) Script
(b) Argriculture implement
(c) Coin
(d) Weapon

Answer: Coin

Which is the most important divinity of Rig Veda?
(a) Marut
(b) Shakti
(c) Agni
(d) Varun

Answer: Varun

What is the subject matter of the Upanishads ?
(a) Philosophy
(b) Yoga
(c) Religion
(d) Law

Answer: Religion

Rigveda Samhita denotes one fourth of its hymns to
(a) Rudra
(b) Marut
(c) Indra
(d) Agni

Answer: Indra

Boghazkoi is important because
(a) It is known as significant trading centre between Central Asia and Tibet.
(b) None of these
(c) The original text of the Vedas was composed there.
(d) Insription found here mention the names of Vedic gods and goddesses.

Answer: Insription found here mention the names of Vedic gods and goddesses.

Rigveda is divided into 10 books. Which among the following book(s) is/are the oldest ?
(a) Second-seventh
(b) Third-ninth
(c) First
(d) Second-eighth

Answer: Second-seventh

Which of the following Vedas is rendered musically ?
(a) Sama Veda
(b) Atharva Veda
(c) Rig Veda
(d) Yajur Veda

Answer: Sama Veda

The salient feature of Rigvedic religion was the worship of
(a) Pashupati
(b) Trimurti
(c) Mother Goddess
(d) Nature

Answer: Nature

Which God lost his importance as the first deity during the Rig Vedic period ?
(a) Agni
(b) Rudra
(c) Indra
(d) Varuna

Answer: Varuna

Which was the God of animal during the later Vedic period ?
(a) Vishnu
(b) Prajapati
(c) Rudra
(d) Indra

Answer: Rudra

 The Gayatri Mantra contained in the Rig Veda is dedicated to which deity ?
(a) Surya
(b) Savitri
(c) Agni
(d) Marut

Answer: Savitri

By

Shabeer Mon Asst.Professor , Kerala

Earliest known precise celestial calculations: Aryabhata, an Indian Mathematician (c. 500AD) accurately calculated celestial constants like earth’s rotation per solar orbit, days per solar orbit, days per lunar orbit. 

Astronomical time spans: Apart from the peoples of the Mayan civilization, the ancient Hindus appear to be the only people who even thought beyond a few thousand years. Hindu scriptures refer to time scales that vary from ordinary earth day and night to the day and night of the Brahma that are a few billion earth years long. 

Theory of creation of the universe: A 9th century Hindu scripture, The Mahapurana by Jinasena claims that the world is uncreated, as time itself is, without beginning and end. And it is based on principles. 

Earth goes round the sun: Aryabhata, it so happens, was apparently quite sceptical of the widely held doctrines about eclipses and also about the belief that the Sun goes round the Earth. As early as the sixth century, he talked of the diurnal motion of the earth and the appearance of the Sun going round it.

Binary System of number representation: A Mathematician named Pingala (c. 100BC) developed a system of binary enumeration convertible to decimal numerals. He described the system in his book called Chandahshaastra. The system he described is quite similar to that of Leibnitz, who was born in the 17th century. 

Earliest and only known Modern Language: Panini (c 400BC), in his Astadhyayi, gave formal production rules and definitions to describe Sanskrit grammar. Starting with about 1700 fundamental elements, like nouns, verbs, vowels and consonants, he put them into classes. The construction of sentences, compound nouns etc. was explained as ordered rules operating on underlying fundamental structures. 

Invention of Zero: Although ancient Babylonians were known to have used what is often called “place holders” to distinguish between numbers like 809 and 89, they were nothing more than blank spaces or at times two wedge shapes like”. The first notions of zero as a number and its uses have been found in ancient Mathematical treatise from India. 

The word “Algorithm”: Al-Khwarizmi’s work, De numero indorum (Concerning the Hindu Art of Reckoning), was based presumably on an Arabic translation of Brahmagupta where he gave a full account of the Hindu numerals which was the first to expound the system with its digits 0,1,2,3,…,9 and decimal place value which was a fairly recent arrival from India. The new notation came to be known as that of al-Khwarizmi, or more carelessly, algorism; ultimately the scheme of numeration making use of the Hindu numerals came to be called simply algorism or algorithm, a word that, originally derived from the name al-Khwarizmi. 

Representing Large numbers: Mathematicians in India invented the base ten system in ancient times. But research did not stop there. The practice of representing large numbers also evolved in ancient India. Notion of representing large numbers as powers of 10, one that was invented in India, turned out to be extremely handy.

By

Shabeer Mon. Asst Porfessor. Kerala

Apart from flourishing trade, other significant features of this period are: monetization of economy, development of crafts, growth of urban centers and weakening of state control over the farming operations.

The post-Mauryan India saw the monetization of economy on an unprecedented scale. The Indo- Greek rulers were the first to issue gold coins. Menander was perhaps the last of the Indo-Greek rulers to issue gold coins. After them the Kushanas issued them in considerable numbers. In the opinion of some scholars, all Kushana gold coins were minted out of Roman gold. 

However, gold mines existed in Sind in the time of Alexander and the gold mines of Dhalbhum lay under the sway of the Kushanas. Apart from this, the imported gold coins were mostly used as bullion or at times they may have been circulated only in large transactions. The Satavahanas issued coins in metals of low value i.e. lead, and copper. The Kushanas perhaps issued the largest number of copper coins.

Not only the imperial dynasties but also the smaller republican dynasties issued silver and copper coins. The Nagas, Yaudheyas, Kunindas, Mitra rulers of Kaushambi, Mathura, Avanti and Ahichhatra etc. all issued their own coins. 

Many nigamas also issued coins of copper and bronze all this show that money had penetrated deep into the life of common man during the post-Mauryan India. The silver coin of thirty-two ratis was known to Manu as purana or dharana. The copper coin of eight ratis was known as karshapana. Smaller copper coins known as kakani were also in circulation. 

Till now only one gold punch marked coin is known. The Indo-Greeks mainly issued silver and copper coins and very rarely gold coins. Shaka and Pahlava coins in silver and copper usually follow the reduced Indo-Greek standard. The gold dinaras and suvarnas of the Kushanas were based on the Roman denarius and were of 124 grains. Double and quarter dinaras were also issued. 

Expansion of trade and monetization of economy is closely related to the growth of urban centers in the country. Urbanization in this period has been termed as the third phase of early historic urban growth (1 st: 7-6 centuries BC; 2nd: Mauryan period). 

In the north-western India the main cause of urbanization seems to be the trade routes and increased traffic., That is why Mortimer Wheeler described both Charsada and Taxila, the two most notable urban centers, as ‘caravan cities’. The modern city of Charsada is known as Pushkalavati in Indian sources and Peucelaotis and Proclais in classical sources. Its importance declined slightly with the growth of Purushapura under the Kushanas. According to A. H. Dani the city, was founded by Menander.

Here a house of the Kushana period is associated with a Buddhist teacher, Naradakha. Taxila, the second important city, was a trade centre par excellence, owing its importance to its position on the route converging upon Bactria. 

A second route moved up from Taxila to Central Asia by way of Kashmir. Archaeologically, Taxila is the most extensively excavated city site of the subcontinent. The three successive urban settlements of Taxila, the Bhir mourd, Sirkap and Sirsukh have been excavated. 

Sirsukh was laid out by the Kushanas. In Kashmir valley the three successors of Kanishka, viz. Huviska, Vashiska and Vasudeva, established cities but no archaeological evidence survives. In the Punjab plains, Tulamba could be a city of Malloi. Sakala or Segal, the capital of Menander, has been described as a rich and prosperous city laid out on the typical chess­board pattern in the Milindapanho.

In the Mahabharata this was the capital of the Madra kingdom. The literary sources further indicate that the Sakal was an important early historical trade centre having connections with both the west and the Gangetic valley. Identified with modern Sialkot, its existence could not be proved by excavations.

The region known as Indo-Gangetic divide was an indisputable area of cultural transition where influences from inner India and the west mingled together. Khokra Kot near Rohtak and Sunet near Ludhiana, both associated with the Yaudheyas, a series of mounds in Kurukshetra, Agroha and Sirsa near Hissar all show prosperity during the post- Mauryan phase. Rupar, Sugh (ancient Shrughna) etc. belonging to Kushana period are very significant. 

In the upper Gangetic valley, places like Hastinapur, Indraprastha (Purana Qila in Delhi), Mathura, Sankisa, Ahichchhatra, Saketa-Ayodhya, Kaushambi, and Bhita were important urban centers. Milindapanho refers to Mathura as one of the chief cities of India. The Numerous inscriptions and ayagapatas recovered from the Kankali Tila mound testify that it was an important centre of Jainism.

Inscriptions refer to Caravan leaders, perfumers, bankers, Metalworkers, treasurers etc. Mathura was also a noted centre of the Bhagavata and the Naga cults. Literary sources amply testify that Mathura was both a religious centre and an important entrepot of trade and commerce. Ahichchhatra, the capital of north Panchala, is known as Parichakra in the Shatapatha, Brahmana while Ptolemy knows this as Adisadra. 

It was an important township in the post-Mauryan period. Kausambi was first the capital of the Mitra kings and later, in the 2nd century AD, that of the Maghas. During this phase Ghoshitarama monastery flourished in Kaushambi. Bhita near Kaushambi was a prosperous trade centre. It was known as Vicchi or Vicchigrama in ancient period. 

In the middle Gangetic plain Varanasi (modern Rajghat) was an important trade-mart and commercial centre. It was the meeting point of at least three trade-routes. Sravasti, identified with Saheth-Maheth, was a nerve centre of commerce and a number of routes emerged from here. 

It had routes for Saketa, Rajagriha, Kaushambi, Varanasi, Alavi, Samkasya and Taxila. It had direct trade routes for Ujjaini, Mahishmati, Pratisthana, Bharukachchha and Surparaka. The ancient monastery site of Jetavana is located nearby. In the Nepalese Terai region, we have Piprahwa, Ganwaria, Tilaura-Kot and in north Bihar Katragarh, Balirajgarh and Vaisali (Raja-Visal-Ka- Garh) were important townships. In the lower Gangetic valley (Bengal) we have Kotasur, Tamluk, Pushkarana, Chandraketugarh, Mahasthangarh and Wari-Bateshwar as important trade centers. Sisupalgarh and Jaugada are the two early historic cities of coastal Orissa. In Eastern Rajasthan, we have Bairat, Rairh, Sambhar and Nagari. 

These are Mauryan in core but showing post-Mauryan affluence. In Madhya Pradesh, Vidisha was the western capital of the Shungas. It was an important breakpoint on the route linking north India, Deccan and west India. Its economic prosperity is shown from the references to its laborers, bankers and artisan guilds in some early dedicatory inscriptions. 

Vidisha also seems to have been an important craft centre, particularly noted for ivory, weaving and sharp swords. Pawaya or ancient Padmavati and Ujjaini were other important cities in central India. The route from the Gangetic valley bifurcated at Ujjaini for the Deccan and west India. 

With the development of India’s Mediterranean trade, the Gujarat coastline attained a new stage of economic prosperity. The most important city in Gujarat was ancient Bharukachchha or Bhrigukaccha of the Indian sources and Barygaza of the classical sources. It was a port par excellence.

Not only was its immediate hinterland fertile, producing wheat, rice and cotton, but its connection stretched to Ujjaini and Pratisthana. It not only catered to the Mediterranean trade, it is said to have had connections with Sri Lanka and south-east Asia. 

In the Deccan region we have Bhokardan (ancient Bhogavardhana), Paithan (Pratishthan), Tagara, Brahmapuri, Adam and Kaundinyapur in Maharashtra; Banavasi, Isila and Sannati in Karnataka; and Nagarjunakonda (Vijayapur),Satanikota, Dhanyakataka, Kondapur and Peddavegi (ancient Vengi) in Andhra as important cities in Tamilnadu, we have many urban centres such as Arikamedu, Kaveripattinam, Uraiyur and Musiris in Kerala. Thus we see that the whole Indian subcontinent was dotted with urban centers during the post-Mauryan period. 

Expansion of trade networks and the consequent growth of money economy led to a proliferation of craft production and better management of industrial production and procurement. This is shown by the fact that the Digha Nikaya belonging to pre-Mauryan age mentions around two dozen occupations whereas the Mahavastu belonging to the post-Mauryan period mentions 36 kinds of workers living in the town of Rajagira. 

The Milindapanho lists nearly 75 occupations of which nearly 60 are connected with crafts. Of these, eight crafts were associated with the working of mineral products: gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, brass, iron and precious stones or jewels. A variety of brass (arakuta), zinc, antimony and red arsenic also find mention cloth making, silk weaving, and arms making made progress during this period. Technological knowledge about the working of iron had made considerable progress. 

Salmasius informs us of a Greek monograph on Indian steel. Under Marcus Aurelius, there was an import tax on Ferrum Irtdicum. In the Sirkap city of Taxila, a large number and variety of iron objects have been unearthed. The Periplus mentions exports of Indian iron and steel from Ariaca (around the Gulf of Cambay) to African ports.

The Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh seems to have been the richest, so far as the finds of iron objects are concerned. In addition to weapons, balance rods, socketed axes and hoes, sickles, ploughshares, razors and ladles have been unearthed in Karimnagar and Nalgonda districts. Interestingly, the site in Karimnagar was a rural settlement where carpenters, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, potters etc. lived in separate quarters. 

It is rather surprising that cotton (karpasa), out of which most of the cloths were made, is not mentioned in the indigenous literature till the fifth century BC (Panini), though the cotton plant is indigenous to India. From the Arthashastra we know that the seats of cotton industry were in Aparanta (Konkan), Kalinga, Vanga, Vatsa and Mahisa (Jabalpur). Manu attributes a special purity to cotton.

It prescribes that a Brahman’s sacrificial thread should be made of cotton, that of a Kshatriya of flax and that of a Vaisya of wool. Acharanga Sutra (1 st century AD) mentions various types of cotton: blue cotton, common cotton, Bengal cotton etc. The most important centers of cotton production were Bengal, Varanasi, Gujarat and Gandhara. From Ujjaini and Tagara, considerable quantities of cotton were exported to Arabia, Socotra and Egypt. 

A large number of Roman coins found in the cotton growing areas show that the Roman empire was the biggest market of Indian cotton. Similarly wool (urna) was produced in the north-western Frontier areas, Punjab and present day Uttaranchal. Uddiyan (Swat) was an important wool making centre.

The ivory work, glass manufacture and bead making, coin-minting etc. were some other craftes which developed during this period. The manufacture of oil increased because of the use of the oil wheel (tailikachakra) mentioned in the Divyavadana. In inscriptions from the western Deccan, Sanchi, Bharhut, Mathura and Bodh Gaya, weavers, goldsmiths, smiths and perfumers (gandhika) figure as donors of caves, pillars, tablets, cisterns, etc. to the Buddhist monks. 

The existence of merchant donors shows that they had prospered from the thriving trade. One important consequence of this prosperity was that the guilds, although continuing form the Mauryan period, became an important factor in urban life including organization of production. More importantly, in post Mauryan times we get the earliest epigraphic testimony regarding the existence of the guilds of artisans who organized under their headman. 

This guild system seems to have loosened the control of state over the industrial life of the country, though state was expected to keep a watch over the condition of craftsmen. For the organisation, importance and functions of guilds, we are mainly dependent upon the Jataka stories because no other source deals with early Indian guilds so vividly as these stories do.

It is obvious from the Jatakas that there was considerable localization of trade and industry and different occupations became highly specialized. Along with the economic changes, the new ideas brought by the heterodox faiths helped the growth of guilds. These guilds in their turn patronized the heterodox faiths. These faiths ultimately tended to increase their power, authority and status in the society.

With the hereditary character of the different professions, consequent specialization, the localization of industries and the institution of the Jetthaka (head), these corporate organizations have been compared with the guilds of the middle Ages of the West. From the Jatakas it seems that there were 18 kinds of guilds. Of them only four are specified – the wood-workers, the smiths, the leather dressers and the painters. 

Because of the localization of industries, places were named after different kinds of craftsmen – Ivory carvers’ street, carpenters’ village, and potters’ village. Excavations in Karimnagar have actually shown the existence of such practice. The influence of the guilds is also known from the fact that the king is advised to borrow money from them in time of emergency. Manu and Yagnavalkya prescribe that the state should honor and preserve the laws of the guilds. The guild officers were held in high esteem and in legal proceedings, their evidence carried weight. 

A few inscriptions of the early Christian era show that guilds sometimes performed public functions as well. Large deposits were left with these institutions to act as trusts and bankers. In the Nasik cave inscription we find that Usavadatta, son-in-law of the Shaka chief Nahapana, made an endowment of money to support twenty monks. 

2000 karsapanas were deposited with a weavers’ guild at Govardhana, at the rate of 12% interest to provide clothes for these monks. 1000 karsapanas were deposited with another guild at the same place to provide for minor expenses of the same monks. The inscription also recorded that the transaction had been registered at the nigamasabha according to the custom. 

Another Nasik inscription records endowments of money deposited with several guilds at Govardhana by a lay devotee. These guilds were of kularikas (potters), odayantrikas (makers of water-machines) and of oil-pressers. From one inscription we learn of a guild of corn dealers making a gift of a seven-celled cave and a cistern. 

At Sanchi the guild of ivory carvers dedicated one of the piers of southern gate. In the post-Mauryan period even minor crafts started organizing srenis, for example guilds of bamboo-workers, braziers and flour makers. Some of the guilds had their own seals and emblems. Such seals have been found at Basarh. 

These guilds functioned as administrators of their trades. This included fixing the rules of work, quality of the product and their prices. They also, at times, controlled the personal matters of the guild members, and the customary usage of the guild (sreni-dharma) had a force of law. This is also known as samvitpatra (Narada) or sthitipatra (Katyayana).

By

Shabeer Mon.M, Asst. Poressor , Kerala. please write at shabeerm4u@gmail.com

An entire group of Vedic ‘experts’ have stood up to prove that Vedas contain early man theories and are not compatible with modern discoveries. These include communist historians propelled by  commentaries on Vedas by western ideologists like Max Muller, Griffith et al and a new breed of intellectuals who initiate all research with assumption that ‘old means defective’. 

However in modern era of religious marketing, another group has come up which would go to any length to discover scientific errors in Vedas. This is the group which would want 800 million Hindus to lose faith in Vedas and their religion and embrace what they believe is the final message of God. 

Yes I am referring to Islamic and Christian evangelists. 

While both these groups of evangelists are propelled by vision of making everyone in world a follower of their respective Holy Books, the situation is even more desperate for Quran zealots. This is because a bulk of Islamic evangelists believes that Jesus will come again towards end of the world after which they would reach Paradise forever. And an important sign of Jesus’ coming is conquest of India. I do not know the original source of this superstition, but this remains a primary motivator for most Islamic evangelists today.

Thus every now and then, we would see references to ‘Scientific Errors in Vedas’. The typical pattern would be English translation of some mantra followed by a Veda Mantra reference. For example

“Earth is flat” – Yajur Ved 32.8″. 

Often the reference and English translation are both pointing to sources best known to authors of these works. But for layman, these create a lot of confusion and doubt over relevance of Vedas. While I would shy away from thrusting my personal faith on Vedas, I would like to provide some excerpts from Vedas that provide clues to deep scientific concepts hidden within them. 

Unfortunately, due to thousand years of slavery, burning of our universities and libraries by barbarians and then demands for tackling issues of survival first, there remains a lot of work to be done to rediscover the Vedic sciences. However, sufficient clues exist to justify why this rediscovery would be worthwhile. In this article, I shall provide some brief snippets of such clues.

A point of note: Vedas not being dogmatic in nature and containing eternal truths do not try to spoon-feed us. Thus Vedas would contain seeds for all forms of knowledge and would urge humans to explore further. Because in the Vedic framework, it’s our efforts that can provide us bliss. 

MOTION OF EARTH 

Rig Veda 10.22.14 

“This earth is devoid of hands and legs, yet it moves ahead. All the objects over the earth also move with it. It moves around the sun.

In this mantra,

Kshaa = Earth (refer Nigantu 1.1)

Ahastaa = without hands

Apadee = without legs

Vardhat = moves ahead

Shushnam Pari = Around the sun

Pradakshinit = revolves 

Rig Veda 10.149.1 

“The sun has tied Earth and other planets through attraction and moves them around itself as if a trainer moves newly trained horses around itself holding their reins.”

In this mantra, 

Savita = Sun

Yantraih = through reins

Prithiveem = Earth

Aramnaat = Ties

Dyaam Andahat = Other planets in sky as well

Atoorte = Unbreakable

Baddham = Holds

Ashwam Iv Adhukshat = Like horses 

GRAVITATIONAL FORCE 

Rig Veda 8.12.28 

“O Indra! by putting forth your mighty rays, which possess the qualities of gravitation and attraction-illumination and motion – keep up the netire universe in order through the Power of your attraction.”

Rig Veda 1.6.5, Rig Veda 8.12.30. 

“O God, You have created this Sun. You possess infinite power. You are upholding the sun and other spheres and render them steadfast by your power of attraction. 

Yajur Veda 33.43 

“The sun moves in its own orbit in space taking along with itself the mortal bodies like earth through force of attraction.”

 Rig Veda 1.35.9 

“The sun moves in its own orbit but holding earth and other heavenly bodies in a manner that they do not collide with each other through force of attraction. 

Rig Veda 1.164.13 

“Sun moves in its orbit which itself is moving. Earth and other bodies move around sun due to force of attraction, because sun is heavier than them. 

Atharva Veda 4.11.1

“The sun has held the earth and other planets” 

LIGHT OF MOON 

Rig Veda 1.84.15 

“The moving moon always receives a ray of light from sun” 

Rig Veda 10.85.9 

“Moon decided to marry. Day and Night attended its wedding. And sun gifted his daughter “Sun ray” to Moon.” 

ECLIPSE

 Rig Veda 5.40.5 

“O Sun! When you are blocked by the one whom you gifted your own light (moon), and then earth gets scared by sudden darkness.” 

“SCIENCE OF BUILDING SHIPS AND AIRPLANES”: 

Swami Dayanand has detailed Mantras regarding these in his Vedic commentary and Introduction to Vedas” (1876). The scientists of IISc concluded that the mechanism of airplane as suggested by Dayanand is feasible. The first manned plane was built 20 years after death of Swami Dayanand.

The verses are difficult to translate in English here, but readers are advised to review “Introduction to Vedas” by Swami Dayanand or interpretations of following mantras: Rig Veda 1.116.3, 1.116.4, 10.62.1, 1.116.5, 1.116.6, 1.34.2, 1.34.7, 1.48.8 etc. 

SCIENCE OF TELEGRAPHY 

Rig Veda 1.119.10 

“With the help of bipolar forces (Aswins), you should employ telegraphic apparatus made of good conductor of electricity. It is necessary for efficient military operations but should be used with caution.”

I am also attaching a few pdfs of the scientific advancements of ancient India. These are developed by Indian Institute of Scientific Heritage. 

I hope this would be sufficient to at least drive the need for further exploration of our scientific heritage originating from Vedas.

Scientific and Technological Heritage, we claim these are Indian discoveries… 

SURPRISING IDEAS IN THE VEDIC TEXTS 

 It was Herodotus who first spoke of the idea of the wonders of the ancient world. He was, of course, talking only of monumental art. There is a list of the wonders from the Greek world that was compiled in the Middle Ages. This list has the great pyramid of Giza, the hanging gardens of Babylon, the statue of Zeus at Olympia, the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the mausoleum at Halicarnassus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the lighthouse of Alexandria. Only one of these seven survives.  

There are other lists too that are not Greek-centric. We have marvels of art and architecture from China, Mexico, Europe, Peru, Iran, India, Indonesia, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, and other countries. Not all of these marvels are in a good state of repair. Some are under the threat of destruction. Three of the most magnificent creations were lost in Afghanistan just recently.  

 But here I don’t wish to speak of wonders of stone and metal. Rather, I wish to propose a list of the ‘Seven Wonders of the Ancient Mind’. These are revolutionary and astonishing ideas that have had a lasting influence on the world. Not surprisingly, it is hard for us to place these ideas in context. For most of them, we cannot name the originator.  

Such lists are subjective, and mine is no exception. I had to leave out many obviously impressive ideas, such as airplanes, space travel, weapons that can destroy the world, embryo transplantation, multiple babies from the same embryo, space travel, and so on–from just the Mahabharata and the Puranas. (Lest I be misunderstood, we are not speaking of real planes, bombs, and biotechnology, but rather of the conception of their possibility.)  

The ideas that I chose are perhaps more fundamental than those above that I left out. Ultimately, I used the criterion of not just originality, but continuing relevance and sheer improbability of the thought of it in the ancient world.     

Here’s my list of the seven most astonishing ideas: 

1. An Extremely Old Universe: 

The idea that the universe is very old is quite startling, when one notes that humanity’s collective memory doesn’t go further than a few thousand years. The universe is taken to go through cycles of creation and destruction. This conception also assumes infinite number of solar systems. 

2. An Atomic World and the Subject/Object Dichotomy: 

According to the atomic doctrine of Kanada, there are nine classes of substances: ether, space, and time that are continuous; four elementary substances (or particles) called earth, air, water, and fire that are atomic; and two kinds of mind, one omnipresent and another which is the individual. This system also postulates a subject/object dichotomy, which is a part of the systems of Sankhya and Vedanta as well. In these systems, the conscious subject is separate from the material reality but he is, nevertheless, able to direct its evolution. The atomic doctrine of Kanada is much more interesting than that of Democritus. It is the recognition of the subject/object dichotomy that led to the creation of modern physics. 

3. Relativity of Time and Space: 

That space and time need not flow at the same rate for different observers is a pretty revolutionary notion. We encounter it in Puranic stories and in the Yoga Vasishtha. Obviously, we are not speaking here of the mathematical theory of relativity related to an upper limit to the speed of light, yet the consideration of time acting different to different observers is quite remarkable. To see the significance of this idea a couple of thousand years ago, note that modern relativity theory was forced upon scientists a hundred years ago by certain equations related to the transmission of electromagnetic waves. Here’s a passage on anomalous flow of time from the Bhagavata Purana: “Taking his own daughter, Revati, Kakudmi went to Lord Brahma in Brahmaloka, and inquired about a husband for her. When Kakudmi arrived there, Lord Brahma was engaged in hearing musical performances by the Gandharvas and had not a moment to talk with him. Therefore Kakudmi waited, and at the end of the performance he saluted Lord Brahma and made his desire known. After hearing his words, Lord Brahma laughed loudly and said to Kakudmi, ‘O King, all those whom you may have decided within the core of your heart to accept as your son-in-law have passed away in the course of time. Twenty-seven chaturyugas have already passed. Those upon whom you may have decided are now gone, and so are their sons, grandsons and other descendants. You cannot even hear about their names.’” 

 There are other stories, less dramatic, where an observer returns from a journey to another loka, and finds that people he loves have aged many more decades than he has. 

4. Evolution of Life: 

The Puranas have a chapter on creation and the rise of mankind. It is said that man arose at the end of a chain where the beginning was with plants and various kind of animals. Here’s the quote from the Yoga Vasishtha: “I remember that once upon a time there was nothing on this earth, neither trees and plants, nor even mountains. For a period of eleven thousand years the earth was covered by lava. In those days there was neither day nor night below the polar region: for in the rest of the earth neither the sun nor the moon shone. Only one half of the polar region was illumined. Apart from the polar region the rest of the earth was covered with water. And then for a very long time the whole earth was covered with forests, except the polar region. Then there arose great mountains, but without any human inhabitants. For a period of ten thousand years the earth was covered with the corpses of the asuras who roamed the world.”  

Vedic evolution is not at variance with Darwinian evolution but it has a different focus. The urge to evolve into higher forms is taken to be inherent in nature. A system of an evolution from inanimate to progressively higher life is clearly spelled out in the system of Sankhya. At the traditional level this is represented by an ascent of Vishnu through the forms of fish, tortoise, boar, man-lion, the dwarf, finally into man. Aurobindo has argued that this evolution of intelligence is still at work.  

5. A Science of Mind, Yoga: 

Yoga psychology, described in the Vedic books and systematized by Patanjali in his Yoga-sutras is a very sophisticated description of the nature of the human mind and its capacity. It makes a distinction between memory, states of awareness, and the fundamental entity of consciousness. It puts the analytical searchlight on mind processes, and it does so with such clarity and originality that it continues to influence people all over the world. Several kinds of yoga are described. They provide a means of mastering the body-mind connection. Indian music and dance also has an underlying yogic basis. 

6. Binary Number System, Zero: 

A Binary number system was used by Pingala (450 BC, if we accept the tradition that he was Panini’s brother) to represent meters of songs. The structure of this number system may have helped in the invention of the sign for Zero that, I believe, took place around 50 BC – 50 AD. Without the binary system, the development of computers would be much harder; and without a sign for zero, mathematics would have languished. It is of course true that the binary number system was independently invented by Leibnitz in 1678, but the fact that the rediscovery had to wait almost 2,000 years only emphasizes the originality of Pingala’s idea. 

7. A Complete Grammar, Limitation of Language: 

The Ashtadhyayi is a grammar of the Sanskrit language by Dakshiputra Panini (450 BC) that describes the entire language in 4,000 algebraic rules. The structure of this grammar contains a meta-language, meta-rules, and other technical devices that make this system effectively equivalent to the most powerful computing machine. No grammar of similar power has yet been constructed for any other language since. The famous American scholar Leonard Bloomfield called Panini’s achievement as “one of the greatest monuments of human intelligence.” 

The other side to the discovery of this grammar is the idea that language (as a formal system) cannot describe reality completely. This limitation of language, the rishis tell us, is why the Truth can only be experienced and never described fully! 

VEDANTA AND PHYSICS: 

Let me now talk of a savant who followed Vedic ideas and was inspired enough to create a modern theory that has transformed the world. I have in mind the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger, who was arguably one of the two greatest scientists of the 20th century. If Albert Einstein is celebrated for his creation of the theory of relativity, Erwin Schrödinger is equally famous for his creation of Quantum mechanics, the deepest theory at the basis of outer reality. Quantum mechanics went so far beyond the already radical framework of relativity that Einstein refused to accept it to his last day. Without quantum theory, advances in chemistry and electronics that are the foundation of modern technology would have been impossible. 

It is a fact that the great European scientists have searched for truth by first abandoning the narrow theologies of the religion into which they were born. But for Schrödinger, Vedic ideas provided the very foundation for his uncompromising search for meaning.  

It is not generally known that before he created quantum mechanics he expressed his intention to give form to central ideas of Vedanta which, therefore, has had a role in the birth of quantum mechanics. In 1925, before his revolutionary theory was complete, Erwin Schrödinger wrote: 

This life of yours which you are living is not merely a piece of this entire existence, but in a certain sense the “whole”; only this whole is not so constituted that it can be surveyed in one single glance. This, as we know, is what the Brahmins express in that sacred, mystic formula which is yet really so simple and so clear: tat tvam asi, this is you. Or, again, in such words as “I am in the east and the west, I am above and below, I am this entire world.” 

 Schrödinger’s influential What is Life?(1944) also used Vedic ideas. The book became instantly famous although it was criticized by some for its emphasis on Indian ideas. Francis Crick, the co-discoverer of the DNA code, credited this book for key insights that led him to his revolutionary discovery. According to his biographer Walter Moore, there is a clear continuity between Schrödinger’s understanding of Vedanta and his research: 

The unity and continuity of Vedanta are reflected in the unity and continuity of wave mechanics. In 1925, the world view of physics was a model of a great machine composed of separable interacting material particles. During the next few years, Schrödinger and Heisenberg and their followers created a universe based on superimposed inseparable waves of probability amplitudes. This new view would be entirely consistent with the Vedantic concept of All in One. 

Schrödinger was born on August 12, 1887. He became a Vedantist, a Hindu, as a result of his studies in his search for truth. He kept a copy of the Hindu scriptures at his bedside. He read books onVedas, yoga, and Sankhya philosophy, and he reworked them into his own words, and ultimately came to believe them. The Upanishads and theBhagavad-gita were his favorite scriptures. 

According to his biographer Moore, “His system–or that of the Upanishads–is delightful and consistent: the self and the world are one and they are all. He rejected traditional western religious beliefs (Jewish, Christian, and Islamic) not on the basis of any reasoned argument, nor even with an expression of emotional antipathy, for he loved to use religious expressions and metaphors, but simply by saying that they are naive.” 

Schrödinger was a professor at several universities in Europe. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1933. During the Hitler era he was dismissed from his position for his opposition to the Nazi ideas and he fled to England. For some years he was in Ireland, but after the conclusion of World War II he returned to Vienna where he died in 1961.  

Quantum mechanics goes beyond ordinary logic. According to it reality is a superposition of all possibilities which restates Vedic ideas. It is quantum mechanics which explains the mysteries of chemical reactions and of life. In recent years, it has been suggested that the secrets of consciousness have a quantum basis.  

In a famous essay on determinism and free will, he expressed very clearly the sense that consciousness is a unity, arguing that this “insight is not new… From the early great Upanishads the recognition Atman = Brahman (the personal self equals the omnipresent, all-comprehending eternal self) was in Indian thought considered, far from being blasphemous, to represent the quintessence of deepest insight into the happenings of the world. The striving of all the scholars of Vedanta was, after having learnt to pronounce with their lips, really to assimilate in their minds this grandest of all thoughts.” 

 He considered the idea of pluralization of consciousness and the notion of many souls to be naive. He considered the notion of plurality to be a result of deception (maya): “the same illusion is produced by a gallery of mirrors, and in the same way Gaurisankar and Mt. Everest turned out to be the same peak seen from different valleys.” 

 Schrödinger’s ideas continue to be fundamental in a variety of new fields. The wonders of modern science, such as electronics, biology, chemistry, wouldn’t have been possible without the insights of quantum theory. The possibilities inherent in quantum theory have not all been realized. Schrödinger remains one of the most discussed figures in modern scientific thought. His ideas will continue to inspire science.  

Schrödinger was a very complex person. But he had a sense of humor and paradox. He called his dog Atman. Perhaps he did this to honour Yudhishthira whose own dog, an incarnation of cosmic justice (Dharma), accompanied him on his last march to the Himalayas. More likely, he was calling attention to the unity that pervades the web of life.  

EVOLUTION AND RELIGION 

The West has seen a Cold War between science and religion going back to Charles Darwin. His subversive thought that man evolved out of apes had a chilling effect on religion; it freed science from the meddling by church, giving birth to the modern age. Western religion has retreated from one defensive position to another. After a few decades it conceded that animals may have evolved, insisting man was special. By now that the idea of the Garden of Eden with Adam and Eve has been discarded, the fight has shifted from the creation of man to whether God created the first life. The church is certain that life couldn’t have arisen without an intelligent designer.  

In the West, evolution theory has led to a loss of the traditional religious belief. If nature could be explained naturalistically, then there is no place for an anthropomorphic God. The church having retired from the academic debate, the main fight in the academy is between those who believe that biology can determine human behavior to a great degree and others who claim that for man biology stands superseded by the world of culture, with its own laws of interaction and evolution. 

Western and Indian thought are divided on the argument for design. In the West, thinkers from Aquinas to Newton maintain that nature manifests the design of a preexistent mind or the Creator. This idea helps to define the Westerner’s personal sense of purpose and meaning.  

In Indian thought, there is no separation between the Creator (the preexistent mind) and the universe. Consciousness is taken to be the fundamental characteristic of reality out of which material nature and individual minds emerge. Laws govern physical processes, but individuals remain free.  

Evolution is basic to this view. Life is seen to have evolved over millions of years in a manner that makes the cell mirror the cosmos. This is expressed in the famous sentence: yat pinde tad brahmande, ‘as in the cell so in the universe’.

From Consciousness arises matter (prakriti), and matter evolves as the balance between its three attributes (gunas) called sattva, rajas and tamas changes. This is the principle of Vedic evolution as given in Kapila’s Sankhya darshan. Even mind evolves out of matter. The evolutionary sequence goes through many levels. There exist tattvas (principles) that lead to the emergence of life out of inert matter. These tattvas, which include the various sensory and motor capacities, are latent in matter. The chain of sensory organ adaptations may be seen amongst the animals. 

 The gunas are not to be taken as abstract principles alone. Indian thought believes that structure in nature is recursive, and the gunas show up in various forms at different levels of expression. For example, at the cellular level, the genetic informational flow is sattva, the metabolic activity israjas, and the membrane that provides identity to the cell is tamas.  

 Texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas speak of evolution of life at many places. Earth is not considered unique regarding life. We are told that there exist countless planetary worlds, which go through cycles of evolution and decline. Hindu cosmology speaks of recursive cycles of creation and destruction. 

The texts imply that ingredients for the growth of life are available throughout the universe. Infinite numbers of universes are conceived, so as a new one is created like a bubble in an ocean of bubbles, life elements from other existing universes migrate and at a suitable time lead to larger life forms. This idea supports the notion of an extra-terrestrial source of life on Earth. (On September 28, 1969, a meteorite fell over Murchison, Australia. Analysis of the meteorite revealed that it was rich with amino acids. The Murchison meteorite shows that the Earth may have acquired some of its amino acids and other organic compounds from outer space.)  

The story of Vishnu’s avataras is seen by some to represent evolution through the stages of fish, tortoise, boar, man-lion, dwarf, Rama the axe-man, Rama (the ethical man), Krishna (the spiritual man). 

The Indic idea of structure showing up at different levels may be seen in the parallels between biological and linguistic evolution. Their analogies may be divided into four principal types. In historical and comparative linguistics, species with individuals capable of interbreeding are compared to the mutually comprehensible speakers of a language. In the study of animal behavior, genes coding for physical and behavioral traits are compared to fragments of culture capable of transmission and expression. In evolutionary epistemology or history of ideas, competing scientific concepts are compared to interacting organisms in an environment in an intellectual ecology. Finally, there is an analogy between the processes in living cells and processes in the brains of persons. Each cell listens to and comprehends its own DNA speech stream; likewise, the human language helps to generate and maintain a stable network if mental reactions (mental metabolism) by means of the ongoing inner dialogue.  

DRIVING FORCES IN EVOLUTION 

The idea of evolution was originally taken to be a linear, ladder-climbing ascent from simple life to humans. Darwin assumed blended inheritance, in which if an organism inherits certain factors, A and B, from its parents, it passes a factor which is a blending of A and B to its offspring. But evolution cannot proceed with such a theory: the variation needed for evolution disappears rapidly as it is blended out of existence. 

The next advance was provided by the Mendelian theory of heredity where the organism preserves the inheritance from the father and the mother, without blending it. The idea of such non-blending genetic inheritance is also in the Garbha Upanishad. 

Mendelian ideas combined with Darwinian ideas provide a synthetic theory of evolution that has been called neo-Darwinism. In this theory, although mutation is recognized as the ultimate source of genetic variation, natural selection is given the dominant role in shaping the genetic make-up of populations and in the process of gene substitution.  

In the 1960s, Mitoo Kimura proposed that molecular evolution was mainly driven not by natural selection but by random drift among equally well-adapted sequence variants. This theory (neutral theory of molecular evolution) contends that a neutral drift is the cause of most of the evolutionary change at the molecular level; also, much of the variability within species is caused not by positive selection of advantageous alleles, or by balancing selection, but by random genetic drift of mutant alleles that are selectively neutral.  

Evidence supporting the neutral theory includes the discovery that synonymous base substitutions, which do not cause amino acid changes, almost always occur at much higher rate than no synonymous (amino acid altering) substitutions. Evolutionary base substitutions at introns also occur at a comparatively high rate. This is because the changes that are subjected to natural selection will include many that are deleterious and so unlikely to survive in later generations. 

In contrast to phenotypic evolution, molecular evolution is characterized by two outstanding features. First is the constancy of the rate, so that for each protein or gene region, the rate of amino acid or nucleotide substitution is approximately constant per site per year (giving rise to the molecular clock). The second is that functionally less important molecules, or portions of molecules, evolve faster than more important ones.  

Molecular evolution is like language change where grammatical markers and basic vocabulary changes much more slowly than the less basic vocabulary. It is providing new insights in biological evolution, and the molecular clock has been critical in helping reconstruct the history of life. Similarly, language evolution has helped in the understanding of ancient history.  

Vedic evolution theory is like the neutral theory. If the gene function is seen through the agency of the three gunas, then evolution has a net genetic drift towards higher intelligence. 

The tattvas are not discrete and their varying expression creates the diversity of life in and across leading different species. Each sensory and motor tattva is mapped into a corresponding organ.  

Schrödinger, in his What is Life?, was the one to suggest that an “a periodic crystal forms the hereditary substance,” inspiring Watson and Crick to search for this molecule (DNA). He also thought that the Sankhyan tattvas were the most plausible model for the evolution of the sensory organs. 

ALIENATION AND HEALTH 

The world is in a crisis, not only because of religious conflict, but also due to the corrosive effect of materialism on the human psyche. There is violence in the schools, despair and depression amongst the young, and the fear that globalization will be destructive to social well-being.  

In the midst of this, modern medicine is failing: not only because of the side-effects of drugs, but also because of the manner it creates drug dependency, so that most people are on one medication or other for stress, heart disease, cholesterol reduction, or pain. This has driven up the cost of health care so high that American companies are no longer competitive in the international marketplace, placing American prosperity at risk. 

Perhaps this is because modern medicine seeks to look only at the body, without thought for the mind. The linkages between the mind and body are becoming apparent to science as a result of new research. For example, it is now known that stress caused reduction in the immune function. But, in itself, this knowledge is not helpful in creating new therapies. One needs a paradigmatic shift that takes as the starting point the Vedic conception of mind and body as a single entity. 

Vedic science offers a vision of the world that is richer than that of materialist science, which it subsumes as a lower kind of knowledge. Unlike the Bible or the Koran, the Vedas are not in conflict with secular knowledge. They offer a way to obtain knowledge of the self that is essential for self-transformation, a knowledge that complements secular knowledge. 

The challenge is to translate the categories that describe the nature of consciousness in the Vedas and the later books into a contemporary idiom that makes them accessible to a wider audience. Meanwhile, personal sadhana on the Vedic path is a way to obtain wisdom and insight needed to navigate through the present times. 

VEDIC SCIENCE 

What our ancient heritage scriptures Vedas say about physical sciences, role of scientists (ashvinaus) and scientific temper, a brief note is given below. To get a feel of Vedic physical sciences, reference to a few hymns are given. 

The Sun never sets or rises and it is the earth, which rotates (Saam Ved 121). The gravitational effect of solar system makes the earth stable (R.V.1-103-2, 1-115-4 and 5- 81-2). 

The axle of the earth does not get rusted and the earth continues to revolve on its axle (R.V. 1-164-29). 

The science of Time and its subtle nature is described in (R.V.1-92-12 and 1-95-8). The need to study the properties of water, air and fire for discovering and manufacturing aircrafts, ships and other vehicles capable of moving in the firmament, land and water are mentioned in Rig Ved 1-3-1,2, 1-34-1, 1-140-1 and many other hymns. 

 Reference to infinite number of both gross and subtle atoms and the energy principle as spirit of God in each atom is given in R.V. 5-47-2 and Saam Ved 222. Atoms and sub atomic particles are not inert and have unsuspected vitality owing to this energy principle. 

Physical sciences relating to agriculture, medicine, astronomy mathematics particularly algebra, toxicology etc. are described in R.V.1-71-9, 4-57-5, Saam Ved 121 and many other hymns. 

In the Vedas scientists are described as men and women of absolute self-control, truthful with scientific outlook and destroyers of miseries (R.V., 1-3-4). 

With the help of these scientists one could travel far on the earth and also in the sky through conveyances, which run and touch the middle region (R.V. 1-3-1, 6-22-2 and 1-22-2). Such scientists from both the sexes go across to distance places quickly like the mind and electricity (R.V. 1-71-9). In this hymn aircrafts and even space ships are hinted. These ashvinaus should be well versed in Physics, agricultural sciences (R.V. 4-57-5), medical sciences (R.V. 5-74-3), astronomy (S.V. 121) and other sciences. 

Ashvinaus have been advised to learn thoroughly about Prakrti (divine Nature), characteristics and various qualities of water, air, fire, electricity and heat and sound energy. 

Other sciences mentioned are Toxicology and use of various kinds of medicines and drugs (R.V 1-191-14), science of Time (Kala vidya) that starts with dawn (Usha). R.V. 1-95-2, and 10, refers to use of time for mathematics. 

There is a mention of infrared rays, study of Algebra (Rekha di ganit vidya), sound as a medium of knowledge for various sciences, diseases like bile, cough, jaundice and others and their treatment etc. The relevant hymns in this regard are in Rig-Ved 1-185-2, 1-12-1, 2, 1-22-1 to 4, 1-2-3, 1- 95-1, 1-101-1 and many others. 

However, the greater emphasis is on the development of Scientific Temper amongst the members of Society with a view to curb spread of blind faith, hypocrisy, miracle and ostentatious worship of God. Thus the knowledge of Vedic sciences is meant to save the human beings from falling into an utter darkness as Isa Upanishad and the last chapter of Yajur Ved caution us. 

The unity in diversity is the message of Vedic physical and metaphysical sciences. While matter is the cause of diversity owing to three primordial subtle particles of purity, activity and passivity present in it, the spirit (jiva) provides the necessary unity. 

The Vedas combine science with metaphysics and clearly mention that it is God who is the giver of knowledge of all sciences as ‘Sahstra sam’ (R.V. 1-10-11). The scientists are advised to study cause and effect of all material elements and also how the objects are produced and there after utilize these properly (R.V. 5-47-3). 

By following these guidelines they can alleviate much suffering of the people (R.V. 5-77-4). Without the knowledge and practical application of physical sciences, it is not possible to eradicate poverty and attain prosperity (R.V. 1-34-1 to 5). 

Vedic Mathematics  

Vedic Mathematics is the name given to the ancient system of Indian Mathematics which was rediscovered from the Vedas between 1911 and 1918 by Sri Bharati Krsna Tirthaji (1884-1960). According to his research all of mathematics is based on sixteen Sutras, or word-formulae. For example, ‘Vertically and Crosswise` is one of these Sutras. These formulae describe the way the mind naturally works and are therefore a great help in directing the student to the appropriate method of solution.

Perhaps the most striking feature of the Vedic system is its coherence. Instead of a hotch-potch of unrelated techniques the whole system is beautifully interrelated and unified: the general multiplication method, for example, is easily reversed to allow one-line divisions and the simple squaring method can be reversed to give one-line square roots. And these are all easily understood. This unifying quality is very satisfying, it makes mathematics easy and enjoyable and encourages innovation. 

In the Vedic system ‘difficult’ problems or huge sums can often be solved immediately by the Vedic method. These striking and beautiful methods are just a part of a complete system of mathematics which is far more systematic than the modern ‘system’. Vedic Mathematics manifests the coherent and unified structure of mathematics and the methods are complementary, direct and easy.

The simplicity of Vedic Mathematics means that calculations can be carried out mentally (though the methods can also be written down). There are many advantages in using a flexible, mental system. Pupils can invent their own methods; they are not limited to the one ‘correct’ method. This leads to more creative, interested and intelligent pupils. 

Interest in the Vedic system is growing in education where mathematics teachers are looking for something better and finding the Vedic system is the answer. Research is being carried out in many areas including the effects of learning Vedic Maths on children; developing new, powerful but easy applications of the Vedic Sutras in geometry, calculus, computing etc. 

But the real beauty and effectiveness of Vedic Mathematics cannot be fully appreciated without actually practicing the system. One can then see that it is perhaps the most refined and efficient mathematical system possible.

By

Shabeer Mon.M, Asst. Poressor , Kerala. please write at shabeerm4u@gmail.com

• Understand the core issue – Be absolutely clear about what the problem is. Engage with your child to dig as much deep as possible. Be sure if there is any action on the part of yourself or the child that needs to be addressed to solve the concern. Try that out first till you are really sure that it is on the school’s side that the action is required.
•  Talk to parents of fellow students – See if this is generic problem faced by other students as well or is it more specific to something not working out for your child at this particular school. This can be important input into your further steps and communication with the school.
• Engage with the school – Once you have figured out the problem, meet the class teacher and share your thoughts/concerns with her. If the problem is specific to the class teacher, you might want to engage with one level up sooner. Make sure that the teacher understands your concern and shows willingness & commitment to solve the same. Discuss on the next steps and rough time estimates when you expect the things to be back on track. Wait for the agreed period and monitor closely. In case things don’t get better, raise it up to principal level.
• Before giving up – Before giving up and starting to look out for another school, re-confirm your understanding of the issue and ensure that you have given enough time to the school to show the improvement if willing. A slight impatience can cost you considerable efforts going forward.
• But don’t delay too much – However, if things don’t work out, you don’t have to have your child live through this problem for ever. Changing school is always an option, possibly a better one. Shake off your inertia and exercise this option for the future of your child.
• Do homework and gain confidence – But last thing you want is to end up having the same problem at other school as well. So do even more homework this time in selecting the next school, have detailed discussion with school representative on your expectations to ensure it is right match, gain reasonable confidence that the issue with the previous school will not be repeated here and that you are not losing out on any major advantages of the previous school.

The change of school can be of significant impact to your child. More so, if he had spent good number of years in the previous school or had made good friends or had been emotionally attached to anything specific. So you should ensure that you manage this transition very diligently. Based on the age and maturity level – bringing him on-board in making this decision, explaining the immediate and long term benefits, setting right expectations (both positive and preparing for little bumpy ride till settled) and daily conversation on how is it going at new school can help.

The clock is ticking. Everyone’s counting on you. Which wire should you cut? While most of us never have to deal with the life-or-death dilemmas of a bomb squad, everyday situations such as job interviews, public speaking,family tensions and  emergencies can be every bit as stressful if we are not accustomed to dealing with them in a proper way. Learning how to remain calm in times of stress will not only make things go more smoothly immediately, it can also, over time, help you lead a healthier, happier life. Here are some methods that show how to keep cool when the pressure mounts.

Identify the Stress:

Identify the cause of your stress. Is your heart pounding because that reckless driver  just cut you off on the free-way, or is it because of that presentation you have to give to your boss this afternoon? Think for a moment and try to figure out what’s really bothering you.

Choose your response. Even if you’re powerless to change the source of your stress, you have the power to choose how you’ll respond to it. The appropriate response to stress should depend on what’s causing it: you can either shake off your stress (ignore it and let it go immediately) or face it head-on. In order to choose your response, ask yourself some questions.

Does it matter? Yeah, it’s all small stuff, but some stuff is smaller than others. Consider how long the source of stress will affect you. That nasty driver will be gone in a moment if you just let him keep speeding down the road, but the death of a loved one may affect you for years.

How much control do you have over the situation? You can’t control the rain that’s ruining your wedding, but you can control how well you do on your algebra exam tomorrow.

Is the source of stress belongs to the past, present, or future? You can’t change the past, but you can respond to the present and prepare for the future. Let your past troubles fade.

Be mindful of the events and focus on the important things in your life. Your life is precious, so let not the extraneous things interfere with more important things in your life.

Take Action:

Face your stress source head-on when you’re ready. Getting stressed is not going to resolve the situation. Sitting around worrying is a good way to procrastinate, but procrastinating will only prolong or intensify the stress. Facing your stress head-on is really just a way to shake off a bad situation that you cannot or should not ignore. If you can change the outcome of a situation that matters to you, the quickest way to overcome that fear or to empower yourself is to take action as quickly as possible. Once you’ve resolved the underlying problem, you can shake off the stress because it no longer matters. The steps below will help you. If you feel paralysed, use the steps above to relax and temporarily distance yourself from the situation just long enough to be able to see it clearly.

Make a Plan:

Sometimes you can resolve a stressful situation right away with one action, but often you’ll need several steps, perhaps over a long period. Write out a plan with attainable goals and a time line for reaching those goals. Additionally, many stressful situations are avoidable. If you prepare ahead of time for important events and make contingency plans, you may not have to cope with as much stress later. ”An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure”. See How to Be Proactive.

Take one step at a time. A complex problem can be overwhelming, even when you’ve got your plan mapped out, but remember: the journey of a thousand miles begins with one step. Just focus on one small goal at a time. See also How to Sustain Motivation when You’re Struggling.

Shake It Off :

If a situation is beyond your control, or if it just isn’t that important, stop worrying about it. Easier said than done? Just do it.

Inhale deeply through your nose. In your mind, count to five seconds, and then exhale slowly through your mouth, for another five seconds. Repeat this breathing pattern until you feel comfortable with it.

Think about something else. Get your mind off the stress by thinking about something that makes you happy, such as your kids or spouse (provided they’re not the cause of the current stress), or by concentrating on the things you have planned for the day.

Visualize relaxing things, such as a deserted island or a country road. Close your eyes and try to picture even minor details about the imaginary place, and you can put yourself in that situation instead of the one you’re in.

Get away from the cause of the stress. If you can physically escape the stress trigger, do so. Leave the room or pull off the road for a moment to put things in perspective.

Get some exercise. Whether you go for a run, do callisthenics, do yoga, or lift weights, 10-20 minutes of physical exercise every day can relax you even when “nothing can”.

See also How to Get Rid of Anger and How to Stop Worrying and Start Living.

Be Realistic. If you continue to experience stress because no matter how hard you try you can’t take the steps quickly enough, you probably haven’t set realistic goals. In a culture that values a can-do attitude, it can be hard to accept that sometimes you can’t do something, at least not within a given period of time. If that’s the case, revise your time line or lower your expectations. If you can’t do that, the situation qualifies as one which you can’t control. Learn from your experience, but let it go. And, if you find yourself constantly failing to meet someone else’s unrealistic standards, read How to Stop Being a People Pleaser and How to Overcome Martyr Syndrome.

Avoid Swearing / Shouting – Many people think that this calms them down because it releases bottled up energy / anger. This is a common misconception. Yes. Release your anger. Do not hold it  all the time or you will explode. Do not take out your bottled up anger on those around you. Swearing only hypes you up more. You think you feel better but really, all you’ve done is put yourself in a destructive habit. If you need to shout, find a place of solitude and let out your anger. Cry. Do not punch a wall. Find a pillow or something that you won’t cause any harm to and scream into if you must. Just avoid taking your anger out on others because then guilt will stress you even more. Talk about your problems as they occur; don’t put it off. Taking care of the problem now, can eliminate the possibility of blowing up later because your anger was taken out a long time ago with civilized discussion.

 Its probably easier said than done but focus on what needs to be done. Panicking and acting  over emotion is damaging to yourself which can make matters worse. Ending up in the hospital because of a stroke or heart attack is not the way you plan on taking care of the stressful situation. Meditation is also a good method for calming yourself. Stress about future events is mostly caused by fear, and stress over things in the present is usually caused by a feeling of powerlessness.

Focus on someone else who is in the same situation as you and try to tune in to that person’s calm. Remember that if he or she isn’t nervous, you probably don’t have to be. Practice getting out your comfort zone daily.

Writer:Shashank Naidu

Start by saying that “all the modern scholars and professionals in the world  who have received the  school and college education  have written  examination as part of their education. So there is nothing  unusual in facing the exams.

1.    Everyone who writes the exam will have fear complex,which is  common at any  level.

2.    Even those who are   contesting for election will  have a fear complex, prime minister and president of a country are no exception.

3.    The parents and teachers also should explain their school and college days experience.

4.    They should explain the  privileges of the lucky  students studying in the modern academic institutes and also about the miserable condition of the under privileged poor children begging in the streets or working in the  factories for paltry sums.

5.    They should inform the students that there are many medical colleges, engineering colleges and good professional institutes all over India. Every student with reasonably good marks can get a seat in a reputed college of his or her choice.

6.    In every step of one’s life there will always be written test and  interview to follow. Exams are part of the life and job.  There are examinations for the doctors, engineers, chartered accountants, judges, advocates and so on.

7.    Even in  the profession/ job there will be fear while doing the work.Think about a surgeon doing surgery, judge giving  the verdict, a singer singing in an auditorium, a soldier fighting in the battle field, a police man facing the mob, a mahout controlling an elephant, a forest guard protecting the forest, a pilot controlling the flight, a driver driving  the bus, a  tree climber going to the top of the tree,  the  fishermen in the sea, the cook amidst fire in the kitchen, film producer, the actor, the cricket player and the swimmer. Everyone of them will have fear in the inner core of his/ her mind even if they are old guards in the  same field for decades. So the fear  is a  common feeling for everyone in the world.

8.    The student should remember that  the  fear cannot solve the problem of exam writing, it can only aggravate the problem of forgetting what one has  studied  while writing the exam.  The student should learn to take the exam  seriously but fearlessly.

9.    Marks  are  important but  not  crucial for successful  life. It is only one  among many parameters.  Marks in each class is only a stepping stone for the next class. No one is going to ask how many marks one has got when the concerned person is  working in a reputed office. None has asked Mahatma Gandhi about  the marks  he got in his exams when he was spearheading the Indian freedom movement. Ranks and distinctions are important  but  not an inevitable parameter in life.

10.  Follow the life systematically with discipline. Practice the  scientific customs and rituals  in life. Let our life  become useful +  fruitful + purposeful + peaceful. That is what is meant by glorious life (dhanya jeevitham).  Waking up before 5.30 am, a prayer sitting on the bed, morning bath, prayer in pooja room, few surya namaskaram for the body, a prayer before taking food, taking the blessings of the parents before leaving to school,   taking the blessings of the teachers during the exams, after  returning from school, playing for sometime and living with nature, taking the evening bath, prayer with family members,  spending some time with parents and reading with a pleasant face and calm mind upto 10.30 pm.  There ends the  day routine. Never study  later than 10.30 in the night  particularly during exam days.

11.  Attend the classes, recollect whatever is  explained in the class and  discuss with friends casually on the subjects. After studying, try to write down at least once. Do all these without tension.

12.  The student should remember that there will be positives + negatives in the life, success + failure, happiness + sorrow, profit + loss, friends + foes, criticisms + appreciations. Life is   nothing but experiencing all these positives and negatives boldly.

13.  Prayer should not be for getting what ever is  asked. It should be for getting whatever we deserve.  God will not give rank or distinction in the exams.  God can give you courage and blessings to study well and present them well if we are good enough. God can give  self confidence, courage and  opportunity to develop and progress.

14.  Let the parents, teachers and students  remember that  it is the responsibility of the parents and teachers to  spend  few hrs every day for making every child  good and great.

15.  The parents should remember that  their child is spending every working day only for  7 hrs  with the teacher in the school among 40 – 50 students. But their children live with them for  almost 15 -17 hrs during each working day and almost full time during the  holidays.  The teachers can make the student great, but the  parents should make  the child good and great. The parents are those who brought the child to this world without the child’s request. So start  giving nutritious food for the body  and give good messages + experience + stories with the message  from the age of 3.

16.  Remind everyone that  nothing is  permanent  in this world. Everyone  will be here only for some years or so.  How long we are living is less important . How are we living is more important. That is the realization of the truth of  life. In this journey of life, the studies, exams,  marks, ranks, etc are only small parts. They are not  the challenges of life and death in our lives.

17.  Let  the teachers and parents devote a small part of their  time, energy and knowledge  for making  each student good  leading them to greatness. Let there be integration of science and spirituality,  modern and ancient, logical + rational + scientific  knowledge in  every teacher, parent and student.

Folks suggest any of your valuable suggestions to the students and parents.

Historical Perspective:

Let us take a brief look at the mind blowing accomplishments of the ancient Indians. We spoke arguably the most refined and grammatically precise language till date viz Sanskrit. The Chola kings ruled over a territory extending as far as modern day Indonesia. Kalidasa ‘s literary feats and Adi Sankara’s theology (not to forget ontology and epistemology) make the works of the western scholars pale into insignificance. Indian mathematicians invented negative numbers in addition to zero and infinity. Aryabhatta, Bhaskarcharya and Varahamihira ‘s mathematical acumen and astrological insight have confounded modern researchers for the amazing precision that they exhibit. Udayana and other Jain thinkers excelled in Chemistry; while Katyayana and Panini’s masterpieces on grammar still make the linguists drool over them. Kanada spoke of a theory of atoms which was extended to elementary particles by later Jain thinkers. It is not a mere coincidence that the concept of ‘maya’ is so star kingly similar to a modern physicist’s conception of an all-pervasive invisible Higgs field.

Even in the Middle Ages, after the complete annihilation of the academic traditions of our country by marauding invaders and intolerant rulers, India was still better off. Visitors to Agra in Mughal times have described London and Paris as villages in front of it. As recently as in the early 1830s , Indians were involved in 30% of the world trade as compared to 1% by the United States.

Coming to the present, India stands at the threshold of a great future awaiting it. The transition from the Third World to the First World can be made within a 15 years time frame, if the people and the government realizing their obligations towards posterity discharge their responsibilities sincerely and take concerted efforts in the direction of the achievement of the objective.

Economic Front:

Half of India’s economic woes can be summarized by a solitary Jagdish Bhagwati statement :” By contrast, those countries that turned inward and had extensive regulations of all kinds on domestic economic decision-making in production, investment and innovation, are the countries that have really not done too well.” Realizing the long-term benefits of a purposeful integration into the global economy, the Indian government must embrace globalization more firmly. Further cuts in tariffs and a removal of quantitative restrictions have to be effected. Foreign Direct Investment remains at distressingly low levels; 0.5% of GDP as against 5% for China. Simplifying the approvals process, removing regulatory impediments and improving the infrastructure would definitely attract more foreign capital inflows. The pace of economic reforms must not be allowed to slacken.

The factor and product markets need significant structural reforms. Industrial deregulation (including eliminating preferences for small-scale producers), and reforms in the agricultural and power sector would be steps in the right direction. Controls over prices of agricultural commodities should be abolished and the government would do well to stop selectively patronizing farmers from certain states. Tariffs must be set at economically sensible levels, and distribution of power must be commercialized.

Food need not rot away in government godowns while millions starve in stark penury. The concept of Build-Own-Operate-Transfer (BOOT) must be encouraged. It is imperative on the GOI(Government of India) to reawaken the Keynesian-’animal spirits’ of the private entrepreneurships.  

Some serious steps must be taken to ensure that the BIMARU(Bihar+Madhya Pradesh+Rajasthan+Uttar Pradesh) states do not drag down the whole nation’s economic indicators to a dismal level. The report of the Prime Minister’s Economic Advisory Council correctly notes that ‘universal primary education is an effective anti-poverty measure that promotes equity.’ GOI should actively promote literacy campaigns through the length and breadth of our vast nation.

As Stanley Fischer pointed out in the course of his talk in India last year, the most important lesson that we have learnt from the East Asian crisis is the importance of a strong and well-regulated financial sector. We must ensure that there is no political interference in private financial institutions. Problems with the UTI and other urban cooperatives reinforce the need for strengthening supervision and governance for the resolution of non-performing loans.

The World Health Organization has documented in great detail the economic impact of human health. The innumerable amount of man-hours lost to illness and disability could be easily averted by preventive measures that the GOI should undertake. Economic progress should be sustainable in the long run and this implies environmental concerns be given precedence over short-term pecuniary gains to a select mercenary group of benefactors. The GOI could concentrate its energies on widening the tax net rather than deepening it causing heartburn among the salaried class of this country.

Fiscal deficit must be curbed at the earliest. Reduction in subsidies and tax reform would be welcome initiatives in the direction. A burgeoning foreign exchange reserve (now in excess of $84 bn) could be used to pay back some high interest loans. Vast investments are needed in order to improve the basic infrastructure in India. 

The pathetic power situation was highlighted rather bluntly by the Wipro chief recently in Bangalore. The Golden Quadrilateral project should give an impetus to the economy. China is today the fastest railway line laying country in the world. The Indians could take a leaf out of their notebook and implement similar schemes.

The GOI should give an incentive to select industries like the hardware sector. Easing of customs and making it easier to export and import items would make India at least as competitive as, if not better than Thailand.

Political Front:
The ubiquitous corruption and the widespread criminalization of politics especially in Bihar , Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh is a matter of great concern. The ‘permit raj’ which allowed the inept bureaucracy to make millions must be uprooted and eliminated. Educated people must be brought into Indian polity. There is presently a vicious cycle: Either educated people do not stand, or when they do, they are defeated by the all-powerful electorate. The politicians need to stay away from populist schemes like the late NT Rama Rao’s famous 2 Rs a Kg rice one. The people of India could also do without demagogues who wanted the GOI to award Rs 2000 Cr to Pakistan as compensation money for the Kargil war.

Communal amity is a sine qua non for progress and development of our country. The Gujarat experience should not recur. Our nation cannot progress if 15% of the population wants to destroy it. While minority rights must be safe guarded, politicians must restrain themselves from castigating the majority community for every ill in this country. 

Capital punishment for rapists, murderers and corrupt ministers would be a welcome idea. The Islamic Shariat implemented into with the punishments meted out (Saudi-style) in the full glare of the public would deter even the most incorrigible of the wrong-doers.

Intellectual Front:

In this information age, knowledge is power. Reduction on foreign technological dependence is essential for safeguarding the nation’s interests during any eventuality. The Indians in the last 25-30 years have demonstrated their capability to go beyond chalkboard diagrams and abstract theories to apply the concepts for practical purposes. Science & Technology self-reliance has to be achieved through successive steps of adaptation/indigenization capability and product innovations.

While the Schumpeterian paradigm advocates an oligopolistic scenario over a purely competitive one; one must realize that barring the entry of new firms dampens the incentive of the involved concerns to innovate. National laboratories can be awakened from their half a century long slumber by making them survive more and more on sponsored research from industry. The IITs and the IISC must take a lead in this matter, and at least demonstrate an absorption of ‘know-how’ if not ‘know-why’.

Making the Param series of Supercomputers has given a huge boost to the Indian scientific community. Further strides have to be made in missile and space technology. [The next war might be fought over water and it will be fought in space.] The development of a Nuclear Missile Shield by the US is an ominous indication of the insecurities that a prosperous nation faces today. The GOI appears to have underestimated the importance of indigenous fabrication and manufacture of chips; this lacuna should be rectified. Standardization of the unit sizes would aid the processes industry.

The ‘Made in India’ brand should be promoted similar to the way Japan projected it in the 70s. The newspapers must shed their negative and defeatist mentality and adopt a positive attitude. Project positive facts about our nation; refrain from portraying it as a country of beggars, and senile mendicants.

The ‘great eminent secular historians’ would be doing India an unparalleled favor by refraining from dubbing it ‘a fascist, racist and communal nation ruled by despotic Hindu warmongering zealots’ in stage-managed conferences in New York.

Strategic Front:

In a rapidly changing world, COMINT(Communication Intelligence) and TECHINT(Technical Intelligence) have superseded the traditional discipline of HUMINT(Human Intelligence). We no more need any permanent love affairs with any nation. Israeli cooperation suits our designs as we are faced with a common foe. The Jewish lobby in US could be of considerable use if its efforts and reach could be effectively utilized. The nefarious designs of the Chinese dragon have to tackle in a clever manner.

Working Groups for economic cooperation of the countries amongst the rim of the Indian Ocean should be established. India would also have to face the Pakistani crab mentality, which will prefer Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) to mutual progress. A good rapport with old allies like Malayasia, Egypt and Iraq would bolster India’s case for a permanent Security Council seat.

India would have to reach out to protect the rights of its expatriate population in the rest of the world. A doctrine similar to Monroe Doctrine taking countries like Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives under an Indian security cover would act as leverage against growing Chinese hegemonistic designs. India cannot afford to remain neutral of any Fiji or Uganda type development.

Social Front:

India cannot go ahead with half of its population ie women steeped in medieval values and customs. Empowerment of women must be a top priority with the present dispensation; though it need not necessarily be attained through reservation in the parliament. Economic reservation has to replace the present scheme, the moment a fool-proof method of locating genuinely economically disadvantaged sections of society is established. Muslims have to be encouraged to provide secular education, inclusive of modern mathematics and science to their children alongside Koranic instructions in madrassas.

Literacy rates are dismal, as are other indicators of human development. (India is 111th on the list slipping some 29 places in the last 30 years.) The looming catastrophe of AIDS must be countered actively using the official media. Interlinking of the rivers might provide a solution to the water problem plaguing many parts of the country today.

Conclusion:

Though brief, various endeavors given, if undertaken could enable India to transmigrate from its current position to a formidable place within a brief time span of 15 years. There are bound to be impediments in the way like unforeseen calamities, intransigent pseudo-secular leaders and corrupt bureaucracy. There shall also be status quoits ideologues and privileged business groups who may be disadvantaged by any change in the present order. It is up to the Indian common folk to rise to this challenge and reciprocate in an appropriate measure. India cannot be driven ahead by a small group of ivory tower seated intellectuals. The feeling of nationhood and the emotion of collective responsibility have to sink in to every Indian’s psyche. Only a concerted effort by all of us can realize our fond dream of India surpassing every other nation in its way. Truly destiny and fate have thrown down the gauntlet and the ball is in the people’s court. 

Writer:T.K Rajesh

Yes, India did progress and prosper. We are now going to be a Super Power (whatever it means to our 40% population below poverty line), we are now world champions in cricket and corruption, we have won a handful of medals in Olympics (though we don’t remember the name of those who won them for us), we have few of the richest people in the world who can gift airplanes to wives and sons, we have mastered the business of education, we have learnt to convert news into entertainment and most importantly we have learnt to remain clean of any guilt. You would question me the last point. The answer is very simple, we remain clear in everything by blaming.

A train accident takes place; – blame it on the railway minister and ask him to resign immediately.

Your son fails the tenth exam because he watched movies and hung out with friends more than sitting at study table; – blame it on his private tutor and his school teacher.

On the road, you see a car hitting a man who just decided to cross without checking left and right; – break the bones of the driver and everything of the car. Blame it on the government for not making good bridges when a drunken bus driver sees a river for a road and leads the bus down right to death waters instead of straight.

You do not make it to the IIT, – blame it on the reservation for ST, SC or OBC if you are a general category student or blame it on the government for not providing sufficient reservation if you are not. (No offences to anyone, agreeing not everyone thinks like this). Many more examples, – we know it better.

We never learn to take the second step

When Anna Hazare or Baba Ramdev started his movement against corruption, did all of us suddenly wake up from our sleep! Millions started to support and shout against corruption. People started fighting in Facebook why corruption should be stopped. People started criticizing those who wondered if Jan Lokpal would actually be helpful or not. But, how many of these people, all of us, really are against corruption? Fighting corruption does not mean catching a government official taking bribe red handed and sending him behind bars. Fighting corruption means to change the scenario from the root to the top. I would ask those millions who shouted against corruption in Facebook, – how many of you have the original MS office or windows in you PC or laptop? How many of you have never bought pirated music CD or downloaded MP3 albums for free (kicking the singer’s and the musician’s right at his stomach) and always bought original CDs to stop piracy? Is it not corruption too?

We all say that Hazare or Ramdev’s step is the first step and it is necessary but are we all ready for the second step? The second step has to be taken by us, creating a clean and morally strong young generation who would not be ruined by power and money when given an opportunity. Has this step started? No. We are not ready to learn.

We never learn to be equal

After six decades of enjoying a democratic environment, India’s trouble with the lack of national integration, languages, caste system, poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition and poor health conditions have only have got worse. Poverty in the country has seen no improvement with more than 40% of the population living below the global poverty line.The rise of the rich to richer has been phenomenal though, due to the monopoly of the capitalist class of India only whom the democratic government of India seems to support. Yet most of us, we urban youth say, ‘Wow, India is so developing’ fooled by the glamour and glitter of Malls in Gurgaon and Mumbai. Ever wondered why?

Not because of just politics. Because of us, ignorant ones, who have killed the fundamental rights of our democracy all by ourselves and thereby allowing our masters to rule us at will. We continue to discriminate between the different castes, males over females killing the right to equality. We continue to ignore each other’s problems. For example, we, North eastern, do not need to be reminded how many of “mainland Indians” ever heard about the draconian, un-democratic Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) or about the lone silent warrior called Irom Sharmila. On the other hand, child labor and trafficking continues to rule our corners, children being compelled to work in factories, mills, restaurants and as domestic servants. Probably we, the common people should have something called Right to exploitation!

We feel satisfied when some angry students protesting for something destroy the government office. We say “good work”. But when some of those students, further frustrated with injustice, take up guns and become extremists, we blame it on the leaders, not ourselves who encouraged them to take law on their hands when they were young. Are we learning?

And to make matters worse, we have the reservation system based on ancient caste and creed system. Yes, it must be agreed that this was done with a purpose. For example, our blood brothers, all the ethnic tribes and communities of Assam have seen injustice and ill treatment somehow or other by some well-to-do “chauvinist Assamese”, especially from some self proclaimed “higher caste” liberals. But the time has come now to think out of the box. We want everyone to be equal, yet we make some of our people feel aiienated and handicapped by giving them “special privileges”. Of course languages, culture, traditions, etc has to be safeguarded based on ethnicity and community. But education, employment, professional career, administration and every such thing which does not depend on caste or creed must be brought out of this sad box of inequality. Let there be reservations, if necessary, on per capita income. Let the poor be helped, the needy provided need irrespective of the surname or the religion he/she believes in.

The number of taxes that we, citizens of India pay is more than the fundamental rights we enjoy. Let’s create more value of it, let’s not blame and complain, let’s do some learning to make most of what we have or what we can. Let’s learn to become Indians.

Writer: Priyankan Goswami

  

“Gaavo Vishwasya Maatarah”. Cow is the mother of the world not of any one person or country. After Mother Earth, Mother Cow is the greatest giver on planet earth. In Sanskrit the word ‘Goushala’ literally means cow protection or the place where cows are sheltered. Other Sanskrit names for the cow are Gou-mata (mother cow), Kamadhenu (wish fulfilling cow), and Aghnya (never to be killed). This cow-killing is the most sinful activity and  who does  that will suffer in many ways.  

The Vedic literatures (Hindu scriptures) state that protection must be given to weak and helpless living entities by the stronger members of society. It is the duty of a householder to protect and provide not only for one’s family but even for the ants that live within one’s house; what to speak of higher living entities like the cow, who are at the mercy of their owners. The scriptures state that the cow is our mother. We drink the milk from the cow, therefore we must accept her as our mother and protect her. As such how can a civilized society allow violence to come to such helpless living entities, who sustain us all with their milk.”

In Hinduism the cow is held sacred due to the fact that it is very dear to Lord Krishna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead. This is explained in the Hindu scriptures as follows:

 namo brahmanya-devaya
go-brahmana-hitaya ca
jagad-dhitaya krshnaya
govindaya namo namah

[Vishnu Purana 1.19.65]

“I offer repeated obeisances unto Lord Krishna, who is the protector and well-wisher of the cows and the brahmanas. He is also the protector of the entire society. Unto that Lord, who is always satisfying the senses of the cows,  I offer my obeisance’s again and again.”

The words go-brahmana-hitaya indicates that the Supreme Lord is especially concerned with the welfare of the cows and the qualified brahmanas (spiritual teachers). The Lord is concerned with everyone’s welfare, but the cows are especially dear to Him. The brahmanas (spiritual teachers) are dear to the Lord because they worship him, as indicated by the words brahmanya-devaya (the Lord of the brahmanas).

When Lord Krishna appeared on this planet 5,000 years ago, he appeared as a cowherd boy. This was due to his great love for the cows. Even in the spiritual realm, the Lord is engaged in herding the spiritual cows, as stated in the Hindu scriptures:

   cintamani-prakara-sadmasu kalpavriksha-
  lakshavrteshu surabhir abhipaalayantam
  lakshmi-sahasra-sata-sambhrama-sevyamanam
 govindam aadi-purusham tam aham bhajami

                                                                      [Brahma-samhita] 

“Lord Krishna is situated in a spiritual abode made of transcendental gems. In that abode he is surrounded by millions of desire fulfilling trees (kalpa-vriksha), and he takes pleasure in tending the divine cows. He is always being served with great reverence and affection by hundreds of thousands of devotees. To that Supreme Lord, who is always trying to satisfy the senses of the cows, and who is the original person, I offer my worship.”

The great Hindu saint, Sri Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati, while commenting on this verse states: “Kama-dhenus (cows yielding the fulfillment of all desire) give milk when they are milked; but the kama-dhenus of the spiritual world pour forth oceans of milk in the shape of the fountain of love showering transcendental bliss that does away with the hunger and thirst of all pure devotees.”

The cows of this world are the material reflections of the divine cows of the spiritual realm. As such, the Lord blesses them by basing the entire Hindu (Vedic) culture on their protection.

The very word Govinda, which is a famous name of Lord Krishna, means “one who brings satisfaction to the cows”. And Lord Krishna has many such transcendental names which reflect His relationship to the cows. Gopala means “the protector of the cows”, and Krishna is famous throughout India as bala-gopala, “the child who protects the cows”.

All these rules and regulations in the scriptures are given by the Lord for the protection of the cows. When these rules are not followed, and when the world turns away from the injunctions of the scriptures by violating the rights of the helpless, at that time the Lord descends to reestablish the principles of religion, to punish the miscreants and to protect his devotees. 

Thus, according to Hindu scriptures, a civilization where there is no respect for the cow is condemned. The cows which Lord Krishna personally tends and protects are not the mundane cows of this material world. They are the surabhi cows of the spiritual realm of Vaikuntha: 

                                                “lakshavriteshu surabhir abhipalayantam ”

The supreme transcendental realm is called ‘Goloka’ because it is the abode of ‘go’, transcendental cows, and ‘gopa’, transcendental cowherds. These transcendental cows are the greatest devotees of the Lord.

Krishna also provides protection to the mundane cows of this world, but in an indirect way. For their protection he establishes the principles of religion and the Vedic culture. Krishna is the protector of dharma (religion), but in order to accomodate the free will of the living entities, sometimes He allows dharma to become degraded, and as a result the cows (and the entire world) are mistreated. At such a time, the Lord will incarnate to reestablish the principles of religion. Of course the true protection the Lord gives his devotees goes much beyond this. He does not protect us from death, He actually protects us from life – life in this material existence. People with a very limited vision of existence think death is our enemy, and we must prolong this life as much as possible. But those with a spiritual vision understand that the soul is eternal, and he will continue his journey in his next body. As such, our need no longer becomes protection from death, as death is nothing more than a passing phase of one body. We actually need to be protected from this life and attachment to its false bodily possessions.

The Lord’s protection is absolute. He is protecting each and every one of us. Some people he protects from death, other’s he protects from life. In both cases He is protecting them, because he is seeing to the protection of their eternal soul, and not just their external body. The entire material creation is for the protection of the living entities. Krishna is drawing us back towards His spiritual abode. From the perspective of eternal time, one life span, or even a thousand life spans, are not very significant. The actual purpose of the Lord’s incarnations is to reclaim the fallen conditioned souls through His transcendental association. This is the Lord’s true protection, which he gives very freely to the cows of Vrindavana.

The Vedic culture is centered on sacrifice, and for sacrifice one requires ghee (clarified butter). Thus it is the cows which allow man to worship the Lord through sacrifice. The cows provide man with milk, ghee, and curds, all of which were essential in the worship of the Lord. Now due to the influence of the present age of Kali (“the period of darkness”), sacrifice to the Lord has stopped, and as a result the cows are neglected, despite the immense service they perform for society.

                                         “Sarve Devaah  Sthitha Dehe Sarva Devamyaahi Gou”

The above sloka means that all the deities dwell in the body of a cow. Kamadhenu she is a miraculous “cow of plenty” who provides her owner whatever he desires .

The place where a cow resides with happiness and joy, becomes as sacred as the holiest of a pilgrimage, and even the dust of that place becomes pure.The host who is supposed to perform the ‘Yagya’ has to purify himself by drinking PANCHAGAVYA, which is a mixture of milk, curd, ghee, urine of the cow, and the Cow dung all acquired from the cow.The rice that is cooked in milk with sugar is called Kheer, which has been called PARAMANNA (the supreme food) in Sanskrit language. Ghee is supposed to increase vitality and the life span of the man and without it’s use the food preparation is even is considered impure.Those people who serve the cows with great dedication receive rarest of boons from them.  

Cow Protection Benefits:

Human Benifits: Cow protection brings happiness and perfection in life. Cow protection is the most important business of human society. Cow killing is the only reason of wide spread terrorism. Perfect way to give some relief to this world by following the path of serving humanity shown by God. Because of innumerable benefits of cow products i.e. the milk, curds, ghee and even the urine and dung which have medical, agricultural and industrial application the whole humanity is benefited. 

Medical Benifts: Cow urine & dung provide the right solutions for most of the diseases, that are considered incurable. Cow urine has natural disinfectant and antiseptic qualities. It helps in curing Cancer, AIDS, Asthma, Diabetes, Psoriasis, Eczema, Heart Diseases, Hypertension, Piles, Prostate, Liver, Kidney, Female Diseases, Hepatitis, Acidity, Fits, Ulcer, Spleen, Ear, Sexual Disorders, Nose, Eye, Cough & Cold, Migraine, Headache, Gout, Sodalities, Sciatica and other chronic ailments.  

Ecolgical Benefits : Allows us to lead a simple & pollution free life. Manures from cow urine & dung, makes the soil fertile, for yielding more nutrient fruits & Vegetables for healthy life. Helps in overcoming the negatives of Chemical fertilizers.Helps in maintaining the quality of underground water Usage of Cow Panch-gavya products is the more simple and Practical approach to serve the Cows. Panchgavya can be used in energy productions such as BIOGAS AND ELECTRICITY, which surpasses the harmful effects of production of energy through conventional sources like burning of fossil fuels and nuclear fuel.  

Spritual Benifits: The Supreme Personality of God head Lord Krishna advises Go-raksha, which means cow protection in His instructions of Bhagavad gitä Cows are dear to Lord Krishna. That is why Krishna is also called Gopal that is saviour of the cows. It releases from past sinful reaction, protection from both moral and spiritual degradation.The cow products (panchgavya)are used to perform yagna sacrifieces, the prescribed duties of humans described in Vedas. 

“If the cows are protected by Lord Krishna [God], then no force on this world should be able to harm the cows. Why then is there so much slaughtering of cows going on in this world?”

“How can one who has ever drunk cows milk justify the killing and eating of such a mother as the sacred cow ?”

“Till cows are slaughtered, no religious or social function can bring its fruit.Since the cruel killing of cows and other animal have commenced, I have anxiety for the future generation”- Lala Lajpat Rai

“Cow’s milk is tonic, its ghee is ambrosia and its meat is disease”.- Prophet Mohammed

Well, all of us are busy in  our own work but please take sometime to read this.Together we can change the world, one good deed at a time. Nothing is IMPOSSIBLE. In the word IMPOSSIBLE there is “I” “M” am “POSSIBLE”. Together we shall spread this message and motive people to SAVE THE HOLY COW and make a difference. We shall be the voice of this innocent COW.  Please  share this inormation with your friends  and spread  the word ”Save the Cow, Save the Nation and Save the World” 

India My Love ( Fragments of a Golden Past)”, written by Osho, a very popular mystic spiritual teacher who had and still has an international following. This book is so touching that it brings tears to the eyes of every single person who understands the real meaning of India.

India is not just geography or history. It is not only a nation, a country, a mere piece of land. It is something more: it is a metaphor, poetry, something invisible but very tangible. It is vibrating with certain energy fields which no other country can claim.

It is strange because it has renounced everything for a single search, the search for the truth. It has not produced great philosophers – you will be surprised to know it – no Plato, no  Aristotle, no Thomas Aquinas, no Kant, no Hegel, no Bradley, no Bertrand Russell. The whole history of India has not produced a single philosopher – and they have been searching for truth! Certainly their search was very different from the search that has been done in other countries. In other countries people were thinking about truth; in India, people were  not thinking about truth – because how can you think about truth? Either you know it, or you don’t; thinking is impossible, philosophy is impossible. It is absolutely an absurd and  futile exercise. It is just like a blind man thinking about light – what can he think? He may be a great genius, may be a great logician – it is not going to help. Neither logic is needed nor genius is needed; what is needed is eyes to see.

Light can be seen but cannot be thought. Truth can be seen, but cannot be thought; hence we don’t have a parallel word in India for `philosophy’. The search for truth we call darshan, and darshan means seeing. Philosophy means thinking, and thinking is circular – about and about, it never reaches to the point of experiencing. India is the only land in the  whole world, strangely, which has devoted all its talents in a concentrated effort to see the truth and to be the truth.

You cannot find a great scientist in the whole history of India. It is not that there were not talented people, it is not that there were not geniuses. Mathematics was founded in India, but it did not produce Albert Einstein. The whole country, in a miraculous way, was not interested in any objective research. To know the other has not been the goal here, but to know oneself.

For ten thousand years millions of people persistently making a single effort, sacrificing everything for it – science, technological development, riches – accepting poverty, sickness, disease, death, but not dropping the search at any cost… it has created a certain noosphere, a certain ocean of vibrations around you.

If you come here with a little bit of a meditative mind, you will come in contact with it. If you come here just as a tourist, you will miss it. You will see the ruins, the palaces, the Taj Mahal, the temples, Khajuraho, the Himalayas, but you will not see India – you will have passed through India without meeting it. It was everywhere, but you were not sensitive, you were not receptive. You will have come here to see something which is not truly India but only its skeleton – not its soul. And you will have photographs of its skeleton and you will make albums of its skeleton, and you will think that you have been to India and you know India, and you are simply deceiving yourself.

There is a spiritual part. Your cameras cannot photograph it; your training, your education cannot capture it. You can go to any country, and you are perfectly capable of meeting  the people, the country, its history, its past – in Germany, in Italy, in France, in England. But you cannot do the same as far as India is concerned. If you try to categorize it with other countries, you have already missed the point, because those countries don’t have that spiritual aura. They have not produced a Gautam Buddha, a Mahaviraa, a Neminatha, an Adinatha. They have not produced a Kabir, a Farid, a Dadu. They have produced scientists, they have produced poets, they have produced great artists, they have produced  painters, they have produced all kinds of talented people. But the mystic is India’s monopoly; at least up to now it has been so.

And the mystic is a totally different kind of human being. He’s not simply a genius, he is not simply a great painter or a great poet – he is a vehicle of the divine, a provocation, an  invitation for the divine. He opens the doors for the divine to come in. And for thousands of years, millions of people have opened the doors for the divine to fill the atmosphere of  this country. To me, that atmosphere is the REAL India. But to know it, you will have to be in a certain state of mind. When you are meditating, trying to be silent, you are allowing the real India to come in contact with you. Yes, you are right; the way you can find truth in this poor country you cannot find anywhere else. It is utterly poor, and yet spiritually it has such a rich heritage that if you can open your eyes and see that heritage you will be surprised. Perhaps this is the only country which has been deeply concerned with the  evolution of consciousness and nothing else. Every other country has been concerned with a thousand other things. But this country has been one-pointed, a single goal: how  human consciousness can be evolved to a point where it meets with the divine; how to bring the human and the divine closer.

And it is not a question of one person but millions of people; not a question of a day or a month or a year, but thousands of years. Naturally, it has created a tremendous energy field around the country. It is all over the place, you just have to be ready.

It is not coincidental that whenever anybody is thirsty for truth, suddenly he has become interested in India, suddenly he has started moving towards the East. And it is not only today, it is as old as there are records.

Pythagoras, twenty-five centuries ago, came to India in search of truth. Jesus Christ came to India….…And down the centuries, seekers have been coming to this land from all over the world. The country is poor, the country has nothing to offer, but to those who are sensitive it is the richest place on the earth. But the richness is of the inner. This poor country can give you the greatest treasure that is possible for human beings.-The Osho Upanishad, Chapter 21

“India is an eternal journey, a path of nectar, stretching from eternity to eternity. This is why we have never written any history of India. Is history something worth writing? History is the name for the ordinary, the mundane everyday happenings which rise like a storm today but tomorrow not even a trace of them is left. History is just a whirlwind of dust. India has never written history, India has only tired to touch the eternal, in the same manner as a chakor, a red-legged partridge, goes on gazing at the moon, without even blinking….

I want to remind those who have forgotten, awaken those who have fallen asleep, so that  India can regain its inner dignity, its pride, its snow-capped peaks – because the destiny of the whole humanity is linked with the destiny of India. It is not only a matter of one country: If India is lost in darkness, man has no future. And if we are able to give India its wings again, its sky again, fill its eyes again with a longing to fly towards the stars, we will not only save those who have an inner thirst, we will also save the ones who are asleep today, but who will become awakened tomorrow.

The destiny of India is the destiny of the whole humanity – because of the way we have refined human consciousness, because of the lamps we have lit within man, because of the  flowers that we have cultivated in man, the fragrance we have created in man. It has been ten thousand years of ceaseless perseverance, of ceaseless yoga, of ceaseless meditation. And for the sake of this, we have lost everything else. For the sake of this we have sacrificed everything else. But even in the darkest nights of man we have kept the lamp of man’s  consciousness lit. No matter how dim the flame may have become, that lamp still burns…..”

Ideally, I want to cut and paste the entire book here, because every word in this book resounds with deep meaning and magnificent beauty. Instead, I have to end this post with the  lines that end this wonderful book.

“But there is another India: the India of the Buddhas, the eternal India. I am part of it, you are part of it. In fact, anywhere, wherever meditation is happening, that person becomes part of that eternal India. That eternal India is not geographical, it is a spiritual space.”

Curriculum refers to a set of courses offered for learning at schools. The course coverage and content is generally determined in form of syllabus recommended by boards that the school has association with. The development of curriculum is generally based on 2 factors – to give students common knowledge foundation across some core subject areas and on the other hand provide enough opportunity to students to learn subjects based on their own interests. Each board has somewhat different offerings around these as you will find available in the appendix section (for Class X subjects), there is attempt made specifically for State and National Boards to arrive at some parity at specific levels (say Class X).

Foundations established across the academic subjects in early ages are known to play a very important role in being able to get entry in Higher Educational Courses and drive performance at Competitive examinations and beyond. With millions of students coming out of Secondary and Higher Secondary schools every year, performance on curricular subjects is used as the criterion for admissions at colleges and universities for higher education.

So this becomes one of the important pillars for academic successes and hence for selection of the school as well for any parent.

Subjects included for Class 10^th (or equivalent) examinations across boards are included in Appendix section of this book. A glance through that might help in getting one level deeper understanding of opportunities available across different boards and help prioritize your choices correspondingly.

An attitude can be considered as the tendency of the mind towards a situation, person or a thing in terms of manner, disposition or feeling. Simply put it is how one thinks, feels and behaves in a particular situation. It is said that person’s attitude determines his altitude. This altitude can either be in terms of academic success, work success or somewhat subtle in the sense of succeeding as a good human being. Unlike Character, attitude can be contextual or otherwise. Some of the attitudes seen in children in particular are as below - 

• Cheerful
• Cautious
• Independent
• Cooperative
• Considerate
• Authoritative
• Sincere
• Persistent
• Sympathetic
• Responsible
• Perfectionist
• Flexible
• Decisive
• Trusting
• Thoughtful
• Determined
• Loving
• Competitive
• Hard Working
• Inclusiveness
• Tenacity

The ingredients that build the attitude are often complicated and a subject of deep research itself. And it can be argued that school has relatively lesser role to play in it. But still there are some aspects on which school has direct and observable influence. Like having a positive outlook towards all other life, being more collaborative rather than competitive, executing with responsibility and sincerity etc can be well developed at school.

How evaluating a school from this perspective can often be challenging. The best approach here can be seeking feedback from parents on their observations for their children can be one good data point apart from again brining this topic up which interacting with principal/senior teachers of the school.

Once upon a time there was an young boy named Satyakama, who lived with his mother. His father expired many years ago and they lived all alone. The boy found out that his friends were sent to the gurukul, where they would gain knowledge at the feet of the guru. As such he also wished to go to the gurukul too. 

He went to his mother and said, “Mother, I want to go to a gurukul and gain knowledge like all other Brahmin boys. Please tell me our gotra (family name) so that I can inform my guru.” 

His mother replied, “My dear son, when you were born, I was busy with household duties and had no time to ask your father his gotra. Unfortunately your father died soon after and the two of us were left all alone.  Your name is Satyakama, and mine is Jabala. So call yourself ‘Satyakama Jabala’. Tell your guru the entire truth and he will accept you as his disciple.” 

Satyakama bowed to his mother and left for the nearest ashram. It was the ashram of the great rishi, Gautama. He told the sage his mother’s words, and the sage was pleased to see the truthful boy. He said, “You have proved that you are a Brahmin by your adherence to truth. Bring me the samitha (sacred twigs of the peepal tree which are used as fuel), and I shall initiate you.” 

Satyakama began his duties by fetching the fuel as instructed and was initiated into brahmacharya – the celibacy stage of a Brahmin, with the Gayatri Mantra. Given the sacred thread, Satyakama took his place amongst the other Brahmin boys and began his education.

A few days later, the sage called him aside and gave him 400 lean and weak cows. “My son,” he said, “Take these cows to the forest and graze them. They are your charge now, so take good care of them.”

Satyakama, the ever obedient student said, “Guruji, I will care for them well, and bring them back when they multiply into a thousand.” 

With his guru’s blessings, he entered the forest with his herd, built a small hut for himself and a shed for the herd and started his duties. He cared well for the cows, at the same time practicing the duties of a Brahmachari and time flew. The cows grew fat on the lush green grass of the forest and thrived on his love for them. Well fed and satisfied, the cows began to multiply, and soon there were many calves among them. 

One day, a bull in his herd spoke aloud to him, “Satyakama, have you noticed that there are now a thousand of us here? It is time for you to take us back to the ashram. In return for the love and affection you have shown to us, I shall teach you one-fourth of the sacred truth about Brahman or God!” 

The bull continued, “The east is part of the lord and so is the west, so are the south and the north. The four cardinal points are the four parts of the Brahman. He is named ‘Prakasavan’ – the shining. This is all I can teach you. Agni, the lord of fire shall teach you more when the time comes.” 

Thanking the bull, Satyakama collected the herd and started back towards the ashram of Gautama. He walked all through the day and stopped at night so that the cows could rest. After making arrangements for the herd, he lit a fire and performed his duties, and sat thinking of the Lord. 

Suddenly, he heard a voice. It was Agni – the Lord of fire, speaking from the fire he had lit. “Satyakama!” it said, “I am here to teach you another fourth part of Brahman. The earth is a portion of Brahman and so is the sky. The heavens and the oceans too are part of the Brahman. This portion of Brahman is called ‘Anantavan’- the endless. This is all I can teach you. You will learn another portion from a swan.” 

Satyakama thanked the God of fire and continued his journey the next day. That evening, as he performed his evening duties by a river, a swan flew towards him from the river and said, “Satyakama, I am here to teach you another fourth part of Brahman. The fire you worship is one part of Brahman. The sun is one part and so is the moon. The Lightning is also part of the same Brahman. This aspect of Brahman is called Jyotishman – the luminous. This is all I know. You will learn the rest from another bird, a water fowl. 

Satyakama thanked the swan and continued his journey towards his guru’s ashram the next day. That evening, after he performed his rituals and sat by a pond, a waterfowl appeared and said, “Satyakama, I am here to teach you the final fourth part of Brahman. Hear it and be blessed.”

 The water fowl continued, “Satyakama, the prana, or breath, is itself a part of the Brahman. The eyes and its sense of sight are another part, and so are the ears and their sense of hearing. The final part is the mind and its thoughts. These are what make up the final one fourth part of Brahman, and this portion of Him is called Ayatanavan – the support. You now know the complete secret of Brahman.” 

Satyakama thanked the water fowl and continued on his journey the next day, and finally reached the ashram of Gautama. Prostrating himself before his guru, he said, “Guruji, I have fulfilled my duty and brought back the cows which now number a thousand. Please accept them and give me your blessings.” 

Gautama welcomed his disciple with open arms, and was struck by the luster on his face. He said, “Satyakama, you have performed your duty well and your face now shines with the luster of Brahman. You have surely gained the supreme knowledge. Tell me, how did you learn the secret of Brahman?” 

Satyakama replied with folded hands, “Guruji, I learned about Brahman through beings which were not men. However, I have heard that it is only the knowledge which is gained through the guru, which is considered the true knowledge. Therefore, kindly instruct me in the true knowledge of Brahman, yourself!” 

Sage Gautama replied, “My son, the knowledge you have gained is the result of performing your duties with diligence and sincerity. You have served your guru well, and it is this service which has gained you the ultimate knowledge. You have earned it well, and are blessed. There is nothing I can add to this, and hence your education is now complete.” 

The story of Satyakama Jabala is explained in Chandogya Upanishad, and teaches us that service towards our teachers, adherence to the truth and dedication towards our duties are the only paths for gaining the real knowledge.

Written by :Anuradha Shankar

 

Six primary orthodox schools of philosophy exist in India. They are – nyaya, vaisheshika, mimamsa, vedanta, sankhya and yoga. At different periods in time, India has produced exceptional scholars who were unconditional masters in these respective schools of thought. It has often been the custom among learned men to debate the merits and demerits of these various systems of philosophy. When one scholar won, typically the other would renounce his philosophy to serve the winner as a disciple. Of course, the disciple’s disciples also became new disciples. One such famous debate took place between the two very renowned scholars – Adi Shankara and Mandana Misra .

During the time of Shankaracharya, the school of Purvamimamsa, which believed in the strict and theoretical observance of rituals, reigned supreme. Shankara realized that unless he was able to win over this powerful rival, his goal of spiritually re-unifying India would remain difficult to fulfill. The foremost proponent of this sect was the great scholar Kumarila Bhatta, who lived in Prayaga itself. When Shankara reached Kumarila’s place he saw a strange and horrific sight. Placed in a courtyard was a huge pyre lighted with slow burning rice-husk. At the center of the flames could be discerned the head of a radiant figure, draped in white. This was none other than the great philosopher Kumarila Bhatta himself. 

Kumarila Bhatta, in order to equip himself with the nuances of Buddhist philosophy, so that he could better counter its onslaught against the Vedic ethos, had once studied at a monastery pretending to be a Buddhist. He was committing self-immolation as an expiation for his sins, which included the pretension of being a Buddhist and learning their doctrines at the feet of a guru, and then, the impropriety of all improprieties, challenging his own guru to debate and defeating him (guru-droha). These unworthy acts not befitting one who ‘practiced what he preached,’ an ocean of guilt overwhelmed Kumarila, and to atone for his sins resorted to this fatal, drastic step. Shankara’s appeal to step down from the flames proved to be of no avail. Before succumbing however, Kumarila advised him to go and meet his disciple Mandana Mishra, who was the most renowned protagonist of the Purvamimamsa School. 

Mandana Mishra resided in the town of Mahishamati (Madhya Pradesh). When Shankara reached the city and asked for directions from some maids on the way, he was told: “You will find nearby a house at whose gates there a number of parrots in cages, discussing topics like: ‘Do the Vedas have self validity or do they depend on some external authority for their validity? Are karmas capable of yielding their fruits directly, or do they require the intervention of God to do so? Is the world eternal, or is it a mere appearance?’ Where you find this strange phenomenon of caged parrots discussing such abstruse philosophical problems, know that to be the gate of Mandana’s place.” 

Mandana Misra was a distinguished practioner of the mimamsa philosophy. The mimamsa philosophy is mainly derived from the karma kanda portion of the Vedas and emphasizes on the importance of rituals. In this school of thought, a particular ritual is done, and the results are achieved instantaneously. It displays a straightforward cause-effect relationship if practiced accurately. Mandana Misra was a perfect and adept ritualist who preached widely. The young and charming advaita vedantin, Adi Shankara, on his country wide tour was eager to debate with Mandana Misra, who was by then already very old. Mandana Misra reasoned that since he had spent more than half his life learning and preaching mimamsa, it would be unfair to debate with a youngster in his twenties who barely had any experience. Hence, with the intention of being fair on Sankara, Misra allowed Sankara to choose his own judge. Sankara had heard greatly about Misra’s righteousness and appreciated him for his act of fairness. But he was quick to decide that none but Mandana Misra’s wife herself can be the most appropriate judge for this debate. The debate between them commenced, and continued for six months nonstop. Thousands of scholars gathered everyday to watch and learn. Mandana Misra, at a ripe old age, still remained a man with very sharp intellect and a very solid grasp of logic, but he was slowly losing. Despite being such a young man, Shankara’s realization of the ultimate Brahman and his knowledge of Maya, enabled him to win over Misra’s arguments easily. Misra was a very accomplished ritualist, yet he seemed to lack some understanding of higher spiritual truths that Shankara seemed to have experienced already. At the end of this 6 months period,  Mandana Misra was almost ready to accept defeat, when his wife, Bharathi, declared that in order to defeat a man in debate, the opponent should also defeat his wife.

The transformation of her husband into a sannayasi distressed Bharati to no end. Wise and prudent as she was, she kept her counsel and addressed Shankara thus: “You do know that the sacred texts enjoin that a wife forms one-half of a husband’s body (ardhangini: ardha- half; angini – body). Therefore, by defeating my lord, you have but won over only half of him. Your victory can be complete only when you engage in debate with me also, and manage to prove yourself better.” Bharathi was a learned scholar herself and a very clever one at that. Knowing very well that Shankara was a strict celibate, “how can a sanyasi, who has no experience as a citizen, and a householder, claim complete knowledge?  She immediately started discussing  relationships and marital obligations. Shankara confessed that he had absolutely no knowledge in this area, because he was a celibate. However, Bharathi felt that she should give Shankara some time to study about this topic before resuming the debate. Shankara immediately accepted the offer and left to start his studies. Through his yogic powers he came to know of a certain king who was about to die. He instructed his disciples to preserve his body, which he temporarily left to enter the dying king’s body. The king happened to be a very evil man. Yet his wives were loyal to him and were in tears when the king was in his deathbed. Suddenly, when the king’s body woke up, one of the wives noticed that the king had recovered under rather mysterious circumstances and appeared to have become a changed man. Sankara learnt from that woman, all that he needed to know about  experiences and on his way out of the body, he blessed that lady who had taught him so much. Empowered with this new knowledge, Shankara returned to resume the debate with Bharathi. This time, he was clearly unbeatable. Bharathi and Mandana Misra bowed their heads in humility and accepted defeat and became followers of Adi Shankara and staunch vedantins.

This debate throws light on the healthy competition that existed in India among followers of different philosophies. Essentially they were travelling towards the same unknown destination, yet they had the open mind and immense courage to test their faith, to question their beliefs, and to change their philosophies, if reason demanded the change. Similar to how different paths could still take one to the top of the same mountain, so too do all philosophies lead to the same goal of self realization. However, even though staunch belief in one’s path is necessary to make spiritual progress, when one meets obstacles, one should remain accepting towards new concepts, experiments, or questionings because these can potentially unlock some deep doors in our mind.

 

                  “The tragedy of old age is not that one is old, but that one is young. “- Oscar Wilde. 

A man’s life is normally divided into five stages namely-infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. There are 81 million older people in india. According to an estimate nearly 40% of senior citizens living with their family are reportedly facing abuse of one kind or another, but only one in six cases actually come to light. Isn’t it a shame for us? Our country boasts of its great heritage, culture and morals but what is actually happening. It’s time to introspect, the fast dwindling culture and moral values, or else they will be confined to some spiritual books. 

When a man or a woman turns 60, he/she is supposed to have a list of things to worry about, be it their degrading health, their loss of vision, their inability to be active and lively and the loss of external beauty. However, there is one part of old age that people would love to experience and that is the care, affection and love their children and grandchildren flood them with. Even for a glass of water they demand, they have a number of people around them to help them with their needs. But what if this very part of their lives is being snatched away from them? In this very materialistic world where money is like oxygen, we fail to allocate time for feelings like love, care and affection. It is important for the Older Persons that they should be able to enjoy their remaining life in their own families and communities. They should have a life of fulfillment, health, security and contentment, and be appreciated as an integral part of the society.

                                         AiBavaadnaSaIlasya ina%yaM vaRwaopsaoivanaÁ a

                                        ca%vaair tsya vaQa-nto Aayauiva-Va yaSaao balama\ aa

Meaning: For a person who is polite and serves/respects old people, four things he/she gets in abundance – age (number of years), knowledge, success and strength. In short, such person lives a successful life.

India is facing serious socio-economic challenges due to the successively increasing aged population. In India, life for many older people is less than happy. When young people after completing their education leave their villages for the towns and cities, the old are left to fend for themselves. Many of the older persons who do not have any social security such as pension have to depend on the earning of their children for their sustenance and medical expenses. The condition of the illiterate and poverty stricken older persons cannot be imagined. Though some of the State governments give old age pension to destitute persons above the age of 65 years, the meagre amount is hardly sufficient to meet the bare necessities of an elderly person. Being illiterate and poor, many are not able to fill in the relevant forms or produce age certificates. Besides ageing process, older persons suffer from ageing-associated diseases.

For many people old age has become a curse rather than an age of contentment and of fulfillment. Older people are marginalized and in many cases have been portrayed as the burden on the society. There are instances of well off children disowning their parents or dumping them in old age homes where they are left to live a life of depression and deprivation. There are also examples of older parents being shunted from one son or daughter to the other for taking care. In larger cities, elderly persons living independently have become victims of robbery and even being murdered for valuables or to grab their dwellings.

It is most important to remember that older people contribute significantly to the society. Some elderly people continue working in voluntary capacity or for some amount of remuneration. In families they take care of grand children enabling their sons and daughters to go to work and thus play an active part in community and family life. Older people are like ‘Doors to the past and windows to the future’. The knowledge and experience of older people is like a vast reservoir of resources which could be used for the betterment of the society.

We are so materialistic that we only want to get close to things that can fetch us benefits and an old man or woman is definitely not going to fetch us anything in terms of money  .But how about the money, knowledge, care and affection spent by these people on their kids over the years?. We should understand and digest the fact that ” what we do to our parents now, we are sure to get the same or even the worst from our children when we grow old”.

It is very cruel act of dumping one’s own parents in old age homes. As a matter of fact, 1.6 million people live in nursing homes We are not able to give our old parents or grandparents the time they deserve simply because all throughout our lives, we are running in this race of life where ‘ultimate-richness’ is the finish line and so we are not ready to leave this race for something as unimportant as non-materialistic treasures. But this is sin.

We need to change our approach. We can never pay back our elders for what they have given us, but if there is something that can be close to paying back, It is flooding them with lot of care and love till they depart the world in peace. We have great many ideals in front of us right from Ramayana time in form of story of Shravana to very many examples till the modern times. Even in ”Yudhistira- Yaksha samvaad”, on replying to one of the Yaksha’s questions Yudhistira says that “buddhimaan vruddha sevayaa”. But if we still want materialistic treasures, it’s high time we say to ourselves, OLD IS GOLD!

“ First you are young; then you are middle-aged; then you are old; then you are wonderful.”- Lady Diana Cooper

 

                                         “Kousalya supraja! Rama! Poorvaa sandhyaa pravartate
                                          Uttishtta nara saardoola! Kartavyam daivam aahnikam”

This is a slokam from Srimad Ramayanaam,  which is familiar to most of us—so much so that in cinemas and TV serials, this couplet finds a place whenever daybreak is depicted. It is Visvaamitra Maharshi, who uttered this slokam, urging the young Sri Rama, who was sound asleep, to rise and shine, the time for performance of morning prayers being at hand. The point is that Visvaamitra attached so much importance to early rising, that he didn’t mind waking up the obviously tired Sri Rama, the Lord of the World, whom he (Visvaamitra) had taken by walk all the way from Ayodhya into the inhospitable forests, paying scant attention to the Prince’s tender years and the comforts to which He was accustomed. We are faced with a question—Why?  Why should the Rishi urge the young Prince to rise early, knowing fully well that the latter must have been tired due to the long journey by foot?

As in everything else, here too, Srimad Ramayanam is a guide book for human conduct, telling us how we ought to live our lives. The Shastras are emphatic that barring invalids, all others ought to be up and about pretty early in the morning. What exactly does “early morning” mean? The day is divided into eight “Yaamaas”, each consisting of 3 hours, four of them accounting for Day and the remaining four constituting the Night. However, half of the first Yaama of the night and the latter half of the fourth Yaama of the night are counted along with the day, which really leaves the Night with just three Yaamas. Thus the last part, of the last Yaaama of the night, roughly corresponding to around 4.30 a.m., is the ideal time prescribed for our rising. This is the auspicious hour known as the “Braahma Muhoortam” –“Yaaminyaa: charamo yaama: Braahma eerita:”. It is at this hour that we should rise, say the Smritis—“Braahme muhoorte utthaaya”. There are lots of scientific reasons also provided why we need to wake up early.

The dark night ends, the sun smiles and spreads its saffron rays everywhere. The whole world wakes up. But how many of us bother to rise from our beds to relish the rising sun from the east? The pity is that we don’t thank nature for the bounties it has showered upon us. When we sleep, many new cells are formed which charges our body, helping us in the long run. However when we get up late, the energy goes waste and the person becomes sluggish and somber; hence the whole day goes waste. Scientists believe that the first rays of the sun power up the living cells and provide good amount of vitamin D, which improves our bones and muscles.

Rising early in the morning has a lot of advantages to humans as it is said, “early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise”. It fills our mind with purity. At this time one’s ears are not disturbed by the jarr of the surroundings. Rather we hear the pleasant sounds of the birds and feel the cool breeze. This is the time when there are few vehicles on the roads. So very less pollution. Breathing fresh air fills our blood with pure oxygen and provides energy to our body. For doing yoga and exercise, early morning is the best time. Morning walk is bliss for all. It is advised by doctors to many patients. Many diseases like high blood pressure, obesity, heart problems etc. can be cured by early rising and exercising.

Students can study and revise their  lessons during early morning and  will never forget what they have learnt because there will be no disturbance whatsoever. In the morning there is peace; so concentration increases. The brain remains in the subconscious state in the morning. As a result, it can take in more information and retain it well. Unfortunately the students do the reverse without understanding how much harm they are causing to their overall health in the long run, which is against the nature. Morning bath is also equally important as it removes our sluggishness and gives us a fresh and energetic and dynamic day.

In many countries early rising has been considered very important. “Work like a bee”- the phrase itself tells us the importance of rising early. In short, the early riser is the one who sees the better side of life and is satisfied in all respects.

 

Plastic bags are found everywhere. Every shop keeper eagerly hands over the goods we purchase in plastic bags. They are manufactured in various sizes and thickness and very convenient to carry being light. We are generally not bothered to know the amount of the damage to the environment these bags cause. Plastic bags are made from non renewable natural source petroleum. These bags are also one of the major reasons for dwindling natural resources. They are called polyethylene or polythene bags. These Polythene bags are agents of air pollution, cancer, skin diseases etc. and have made the world’s clean environment as a pile of garbage on earth. Its use is like a slow poison in daily life and seems more dangerous than an atom bomb. They are not biodegradable. They last 1000 years on land and 450 years in water. The melting point for high density polythene is 120-130 degree centigrade and for low density polythene the melting point is 105-115 degree centigrade. These bags are not degradable unless exposed to ultra violet rays from the Sun.Black colour polythene shopping bags emit chemicals(carcinogens) when burnt.

The plastic bags are available in various sizes and thickness. About 80 million tons of plastic bags are manufactured in the world. Every day, we blissfully carry edible items in attractive polythene bags to home, totally unaware that these have harmful bacteria to find an easy way into the body with routine meals.

We should become aware of the hazards of using polythene. In tea-stalls, restaurants, co-operative societies  and Super markets etc., polythene cups, plates and bags are used in plenty. Have we not become accustomed to use polythene from eating to drinking? Usage of poly cups can be a cause of ulcer. Plastic bags get accumulated in homes. These bags are thrown out in the garbage bin. Polythene bags dumped near household provide a place for mosquitoes to breed, which cause dengue fever, filariasis and malaria. Polythene wrapped fish, meat and vegetables get infected by anaerobic bacteria. They are light as such they get carried away by wind and get entangled in trees. They are strewn in beaches, on roads, on footpaths, in the ponds, rivers, fences etc. They choke up the drainage. It is said that around 100,000 marine mammals die each year in Pacific Ocean alone because of plastic bags. Many birds get entangled in plastic bags on trees and die.

The use of plastic bags is one of the reasons for the havoc caused during Mumbai floods on 26^th July 2005. The drainage system completely failed resulting in the drowning of low lying areas of Mumbai. There was water everywhere. About 5000 people are believed to have died. Property worth hundreds of Crores of Rupees got damaged. Mumbai life came to a stand still for a few days. Bangladesh faced the same situation much earlier in 1988 and 1998 when 2/3 of the country got submerged. Recently the big retailer Old Navy handed over the goods purchased in a cloth bag to the customers. This change in approach is most welcome.

Poly bags are the mother of pollution in every corridor of life. These must be banned in the interest of national health. Instead of poly bags, we must use paper, cloth or jute materials to create a “polythene- free environment”.

Remedial Measures:

1. Bangladesh banned the use of plastic bags in 2002.
2. In Ireland a tax on plastic bags was charged.
3. Like many countries in Asia and Europe India also must eleminate the use of plastic bags.
4. We can carry cloth bags or recycled paper bags from our homes.
5. Paper bags carry more quantity and weight. They are also convenient to carry.
6. All provisional stores and shopping malls should only give recycled paper bags or cloth bags to their customers.

The Indian government has expressed a strong commitment towards education for all, however,India still has one of the lowest female literacy rates in Asia. This low level of literacy not only has a negative impact on women’s lives but also on their families’ lives as well and also on the country’s economic development. Numerous studies show that illiterate women have high levels of fertility and mortality, poor nutritional status, low earning potential and negligible autonomy within the household. A woman’s lack of education also has a negative impact on the health and well being of her children. ‘Nation’s progress is impossible without the trained and educated mothers. If the women of our country are not educated, about half of the people will be ignorant”. To educate a girl means to educate a family and a future family line. It actually increases the progress of a family and that of the nation in geometric progression. It is the mother who is the first teacher of the child. If she has no light, how can she light the child’s lamp!

First let us understand the meaning of ‘education’. ‘Education’ is defined as the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for a mature life. Education is universally recognized as one of the most fundamental building blocks of human development and is one of the strongest instruments for reducing poverty, improving health, gender equality, peace and stability. In my article, I am mainly focusing on the lack of education given to women which has created poverty and low dignity for them in the society which in turn creates gender distinctions on the right to get education.

Woman has to play three main roles in her life. Each of these roles has to exempt some of her duties. It is only with the help of education that she would be able to do them successfully. The first duty of a woman is to be a good daughter. The second duty is to be a good wife and third duty is to be good mother. Education teaches a woman what she should be. It also teaches her how she should do it to be a good daughter, wife and mother. There is a saying in English ”The hand that rocks the cradle rules the world”. The meaning is clear that a mother exercises a very great influence over lives of the children. She is able to mould their thoughts and character. If she is educated, she will make such an impression on the mind of her child that she will enable the child in later life to be a great person. Women should be given the chance to expose their talents and should be given equal status as men all over the world. Education has major benefits which can bring numerous changes in every person. In common literacy has these benefits:

-Promotes self-respect of the individual.
-Results in better health awareness and care.
-Help raise the status of women.
-Increases participation in the democratic process.
-Brings about an awareness of our individual rights.
-Helps prevent exploitation and illegal earnings.
-Gives the individual greater control over their own lives.
-Promotes environmental awareness.

At present there are still cases of illiteracy in women of the slum areas, rural village areas  as the government is ineffective in providing these basic necessities. People should encourage the thinking that ” Women have equal right on basic fundamental rights irrespective of their status in the society”. In reality the fact is true that behind a successful man, there is woman’s hand. So readers, in short I want to just convey the message that the bright future of our country depends on all round development of the EDUCATED WOMEN ONLY!!!….. 

Chaithra maasam also known as Madhu maasam marks the beginning of spring season, known as Vasantha Ruthu first among the Hindu seasons. Madhu means honey and Chaithra maasam is as sweet as honey. In Bhagawadgeeta, Vibhoothi Yoga (canto#10 sloka#35) Lord Sri Krishna says that He is the Vasantha Ruthu among the seasons “Ruthunaam Kusumaakarah” All pervading Supreme Lord, Kaala Purusha, Lord Vishnu is the presiding Deity (Maasa Niyaamaka) of Chaithra maasam and hence this month is also known as Vishnu maasam.  

It is so auspicious that in this month Lord Brahma had commenced the creation and to commemorate that day we celebrate Ugaadi festival.  Ugadi festival or new year festival is celebrated by Telugu, Kannada and Marathi  speaking people on the same day. Maharashtrians call it as Gudi Padwa. Ugaadi is in fact Yug + aadi = Yugaadi. It means begining of Yug.

Chaithra maasam is the sacred month in which Maryaada Purushottama; Lord Sri Raama was born on the 9^th day of bright fortnight, which is celebrated as Sri Raama Navami. It is the most sacred and auspicious month in which highly meritorious and powerful Thaaraka manthra” RAMA ”took birth. It is the sacred month in which Lord Vishnu incarnated as Matsyaavathara (Giant Fish), the very first among the Dasaavatharas and restored the lost Vedas. That day is celebrated as Matsya Jayanthi on Chaithra sukla Trutheeya. It is said as per scripts that it was the first day of the bright fortnight in the month of Chaithra Maasam that Lord Sri Krishna’s Niryaana took place, which marked as the beginning of Kaliyuga.  

It is the sacred month when Sun God transits into first house of the zodiac viz. Aries (Mesha Raasi) where Sun gets exalted. That day known as Mesha Sankramana is celebrated as Vishu festival in some parts of South India. Chaithra maasam is the sacred month in which the mighty God, Lord Hanuman was born that is celebrated as Hanuma Jayanthi on the full Moon day. It is the sacred month in which the sixty year cycle of Hindu Calendar Samvatsara had begun, starting from Prabhava and ending with Akshaya. 

Full Moon day during Chaithra maasam known as Chittraa Poornima or Maha Chaithri is the day when Moon will be at or nearer to the constellation of Chitta and hence the name Chaithra maasam.  Mars (Kuja) is the star Lord of Chitta constellation and star Deity is Lord Subramanya. Third day of the bright fortnight in the lunar month of Chaithra maasam is known as Gouri Trutheeya when Goddess Gouri and Lord Shiva are specially worshipped. Starting from this day for a period of one month Goddess Gouri & Lord Shiva and Lord Sri Rama along with other Deities are offered with special pooja ritual known as Dolotsava (Aandolini Vratha). While Chaithra Sukla Trutheeya and Pournami are Manvaadi days the days Manvanthara had begun, Chaithra sukla Panchami is known as Kalpaadi the day Kalpa had commenced. 

Like we celebrate Devi Navarathri during Aaswayuja maasam known as Sharannavarathri which falls in Dakshinaayana, a nine day festival known as Vasantha Navarathri is also celebrated during Chaithra maasam starting from Ugaadi day during Uttaraayana.  During this nine day period Goddess Durga is worshiped in some parts of the country while in some other parts, it is known as Sri Raama Navarathri worshiping Lord Sri Raama. During this period sacred texts like Ramayana, Sundarakaanda, and Devi Bhaagavatham are read.

With so much of significance attributed to Chaithra maasam, almost all the Deities are worshiped during the bright fortnight of this month apart from Lord Sri Rama, Lord Hanuman, Lord Shiva and Goddess Gouri. On the first day (Paadyami) Lord Brahma, second day (Dwiteeya) Lord Shiva and Goddess Gouri, on the fourth day (Chaturthi) Lord Ganesha, on the fifth day (Panchami) Naaga Devathas, on the sixth day (Shasti) Lord Subramanya, on the 7^th day (Sapthami) Sun God, on the ninth day (Navami) Goddess Durga and on the 15^th day (Full Moon day) all the Deities are worshipped. 

Chaithra is a Sanskrit word meaning a temple or a memorial.  It is the month to commemorate so many auspicious and sacred events including the commencement of creation (Srushti). It is also a sacred month for commencement for Vedic learning. That’s why it is one of the auspicious and sacred months for performing Upanayana that marks the formal eligibility to commence the study of Vedas and Upanishads. 

Prapadaanam (Chalivendram): 

Donating water during Chaithra maasam starting from Ugaadi day for 4 months (summer months) is said to be very auspicious and sacred.

                                   ” Prapeyam SarvaSamanya Bhoothebhya:

                                      Prathipaditha PradanathPitharasarve

                                     Thrupyanthucha Pithamaha Anivaarya

                                     Mithodeyam Jalammaasa Chathustayam”

We would have observed in many towns voluntary organizations erecting the spots called Chalivendram where passersby are served with water stored in earthen pots covered with cloth during summer months. It is said that by doing this activity all the fore fathers gets pleased.   

Udakakumbha daana:

 Udaka means water, Kumbha means pot.  Giving charity of water stored in a pot made up of Copper, Silver, or at least earthen pot (made up of mud) covered with a new cloth to a Brahmin during this period is said to be very sacred and highly meritorious. 

“Yesha DharmaGhato Dhattoh Brahma Vishnu Sivathmaka

Asya Pradhanathsakalam mamasanthu manoratha” 

Meaning: This water pot called Dharma Ghata signifying the trinal lords (Brahma, Vishnu and Siva) bring unto me fulfillment of all desires. 

Taking bath in sacred rivers, arranging of water and shelter to the travelers and people walking in the Sun, Anna Daana (food) to the hungry and needy are some of the maasa dharma prescribed during Chaithra maasam.

Important days to remember in Chaithra maasam: 

Ugaadi (Chaithra Sukla Paadyami)

Gouri Trutheeya (Chaithra Sukla Trutheeya)

Sri Raama Navami (Chaithra Sukla Navami)

Kalpaadi (Chaithra Sukla Panchami)

Manvaadi (Chaithra Sukla Trutheeya & Pournami)

Hanuma Jayanthi (Chaithra Sukla Pournami)

Mesha Sankramana (Transit of Sun into Mesha Raasi) 

It is said as per Bhavishyottara Purana that, Kartheeka maasam is more meritorious than Vaisakha maasam, Maagha maasam is more significant and meritorious than Kaartheeka maasam, and Chaithra maasam is much more auspicious than Maagha maasam.  First and the best among the Hindu lunar months, Chaithra maasam has acquired lot of merits and significance in Hindu philosophy and is regarded as the mother of all the months.

Courtesy: Bhargava Sharma

Listen to M.K. Thyaga Raja Bhagavatar duet with Jayalakshmi about Vasantha Masam.

[See post to watch Flash video]

Listen to  divine voice of Bharata Rathna M.S Subbulakshmi praising Lord Shri Rama in Vasantha Ragam

Lyrics: Saint Thyaga Raja

[See post to watch Flash video]

What is Surya Namaskar?

Its literal meaning is Sun Salutation. Basically it is a simple set of few body postures combined amazingly well with spirituality, pranayama and yoga, to comprise into one of the most simplified packages towards healthy mind, body & soul. Different Yogic scholars have put forth slightly different variations of the sequence and combinations of simple asanas to be done every cycle. A cycle may consist of 10 steps to as much as 24 steps. There are probably more than 40 variations of Surya Namaskars that are practiced across different parts of our country. Of course, each variation may have its own advantages and special reasons for doing it a particular way. However, from regular practitioner perspective, what is important is to do it consistently and methodically along with recommended breathing pattern and chanting of mantras for leveraging the maximum benefit out of this legacy that have been handed over to us by our forefathers.

What are benefits of Surya Namaskar?

Physical Benefits of performing Surya Namaskars include increase in blood oxidation, obvious increase in body flexibility, better sleep at night time, digestive system tune up and strengthening of nervous system.

Mental Benefits include increased concentration, Stress reduction, memory sharpening and enhancing of ‘mind-body’.

What are the Mantras to be recited while performing Surya Namaskar?

Dhyaan Slokam (Starting Sloka)

Dhyeyah Sada Savitru Mandala Madhyavarti – Narayanah Sarsijasana Sanni Vishthah |

Keyurvan Makar Kundalavan Kiriti – Haari Hiranmaya Vapur Dhruta Shankha Chakrah ||

Meaning : Always worship the Sun (Our Energy Source) sitting at the centre of galaxy, on lotus, wearing Keyur, Makarkundal Crown, holding Conch and Chakra and having glittering golden body.

Mantras to be recited for each set

1. Om Mitraay Namah – The Friend of All
2. Om Ravaye Namah – The Shining One
3. Om Suryaay Namah – The One who induces Activity
4. Om Bhaanave Namah – The One who Illuminates
5. Om Khagaay Namah – The One who moves quickly in the Sky
6. Om Puushne Namah – The Giver of Strength
7. Om Hiranyagarbhaay Namah – The bright Centre of All Energy
8. Om Mareechaye Namah – The Lord of Dawn
9. Om Aadityaay Namah – The Son of Aditi
10. Om Savitre Namah – The Benevolent Mother
11. Om Arkaay Namah – The One who is fit to be Praised
12. Om Bhaaskaraay Namah – The One who leads to Enlightenment
13. Om Shree Savitru Suurya Naaraayanaay Namah – The Surya (Sun)

Phal Shruti (Ending Sloka)

Adityasya Namaskaran, Ye Kurvanti Dine Dine Ayuh Pragna Balam Viryam, Tejas Tesham Cha jayate ||

Meaning : Those who regularly perform Surya namaskaras attain healthy long life. They become strong, knowledgeable and have courage to fight with valour. They possess

Who should not do Surya Namaskar?

• People suffering from back conditions should seek proper advice before commencing Surya Namaskar.

• Pregnant women should not practice this after third month of pregnancy.

• Women should avoid Surya Namaskar during menses.

• Patients of Hernia and high blood pressure are warned against this practice

How to perform Surya Namaskar?

Couple of videos below explain all the steps in very good details. Of course, you may also try to visit some experienced or trained practitioner in your vicinity to learn in person.

Readers are requested to listen to the divine voice of the one and only Ghantasala Venkateswara Rao singing the praise of the Sun God in Sanskrit. This video is placed below.

Beautiful Video explaining meaning of Mantras

This unique experiment takes place in a barefoot college at a remote village, Tilonia in Rajasthan, India. This institution is started by a social entrepreneur, Sujit Bunker Roy in 1972. This college has broken all social stigmas wherein the poor women condemned to be restricted to the kitchen and discouraged to study by their husbands are encouraged  to learn and earn in an unique way. People are obsessed with the certificates. As such this college simply doesn’t give any certificate or degree after completion of the course, which is generally of six to nine months duration.

They prefer teaching older women rather than men who come from nearby villages, who have no patience and run away to find some job as soon as some certificate is given to them. So their students comprise poor illiterate grandmothers who had to face abusive drunken husbands throughout their lives. Some students come from far of Countries like Africa to learn the skills. The Government of India provides a scholarship to about 28 students per year to such foreign students for learning the various courses taught in this college. These poor students from Africa happily  learn and return to their Country and make use of their skills for their betterment.

The courses comprise on subjects such as Solar Engineering, Mechanics, Dentistry, Public Health etc. The finance is provided by the Government of India, Private and Corporate Foundations, International Agencies etc. Sometimes there is no common language of communication. The teachers use sign language and special codes for enabling the students to follow their lectures. The students are either made to sit on floor or on some old desks for learning the skills. This education is based on learning-by- doing practice rather than teaching theory only. This organization is also doing great service to the Nation by running 800 Night Schools across India.

An estimated 10,000 women students have successfully completed the courses so far and about 17 States have adopted this model. Even some foreign Countries in Asia, Africa and South America are said to be inspired by this particular model and setup their own institutes of this type.

In 2010,Times Magazine had named Mr.Roy among 100 most Influential People of the World. I salute this Great Man and People of his type for making the lives of the poor undoubtedly better. What a Way Forward!.

There is nothing that one can ignore in this nature because it is all pervaded by the supreme God.  Each element of nature whether it is a person, animal, plant/tree, hill and river etc. depends on each other and one cannot survive without the other.Shree Sarada mata gives us the message that we can learn from everybody.

When Maata was a small child, She was cleaning a room and upon finishing, she threw the broom to a corner. Then She heard the voice of Sri Ramakrishna say, “Hega, you threw that broom? See how beautifully you cleaned the room with that very broom and now you threw it? You must respect your tools as well as your actions. Cleanliness is next to Godliness?” Then Mother bowed down to the broom. From then on She would bow down to it everyday. Maa said that, Thakur Ramakrishna told Her, “If you respect each and every one of your actions, you will get me.”

Respect is an important part of learning. To illustrate this, Maata has shared these stories with us. These stories teach us how to learn and how to become divine. We can learn every moment from every thing because Mother Nature is teaching us all the time. Please read and enjoy the stories!

 The stories are related with  Avadhut Dattatreya. Dattatreya was born divine and he considered every moment as an opportunity to learn. He learned from everybody and everything. He considered all of Nature to be his Guru. How did He learn this way and what did He learn?  

First Story

One day Avadhut was crossing a big field. He saw a huge wedding procession going past the field with much fanfare accompanied by many musical instruments. Pipes and Drums were played and singers were singing enthusiastically. The marriage party was accompanying the groom. At the same time in that field, Avadhut saw a hunter. The hunter was concentrating only on his prey. His eyes were completely focused on the target and he was oblivious to the marriage party and the sounds of their merry making. Avadhut went to the hunter and bowed down to him. He said, “You are my Guru. When I meditate on God, my goal will be to have the same focus as you have just demonstrated.” 

Second Story

Once Avadhut was walking by a river when he saw a fisherman. He went near the fisherman and asked politely, “Oh Brother, what path should I take to go to the city? The fisherman was looking inside the water and did not pay any attention to the question. The sounds did not even enter in to his ears. At that moment, the fish was just touching the bait. When the fish was caught, the fisherman called Avadhut, “Hey, what were you telling me?”

Avadhut came back to him and bowed down. He said, “You are my Guru. When I meditate on my Ishta Deva (beloved form of God), until the meditation is not complete, until I reach the goal, my mind will not wander. Please give me blessings to be like you in this way.” 

Third Story

One day a hawk caught a fish and was flying with the fish in its mouth. Hundreds and hundreds of crows followed it. They chased the hawk wherever it flew. They wanted the fish and went wherever the hawk went. They were disturbing the hawk greatly.

The hawk got mad. It threw the fish. At that time, another hawk was flying and caught that fish. The crows left the first hawk and started flying behind the other hawk.

The first hawk was so relieved and relaxed! Without worry, it sat on the branch of a tree and watched the plight of the other hawk.

The Avadhut bowed down to the hawk and said, “If you can leave all desires and attachments, then alone you can get peace. When I meditate I want to leave all my desires and attachments, just as you have shown. ” He prayed the hawk and said, “You are my Guru. Thank you for your teaching.” 

Fourth Story

There was a little pond in which a crane was swimming with concentration and moving slowly to catch a fish. Behind the crane was a hunter who was focusing on the crane with the intent of killing it. The crane had no idea as to who was behind. The crane was completely focused on catching the fish.

The Avadhut bowed down to the crane and told him, “You are my Guru. When I will do meditation, I will never look behind, I will always be focused on the present and not on the past or the future. Please give me this blessing. Thank you for your teaching.”

From these Avadhut stories we see a beautiful example of how we can learn from the Nature – every moment, every aspect of creation can be our Guru and we can learn. Avadhut  respected with each action. From this we learn that if we too, are respectful in each and every one of our actions, the entire Universe will become our family, and we can learn and share our experience with everyone in this Universe.